Английского языка
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FINAL REMARKSThis brief outline of the most characteristic features of the five language styles and their variants will show that out of the number of features which are easily discernible in each of the styles, some should be considered primary and others secondary; some obligatory, others optional; some constant, others transitory. The necessary data can be obtained by means of an objective statistical count based on a large number of texts, but this task cannot be satisfactorily completed without the use of computers. Another problem facing the stylicist is whether or not there are separate styles within the spoken variety of the language, and the analysis of these styles if it can be proved that there are any. So far we are of the opinion that styles of language can only be singled out in the written variety. This can be explained by the fact that any style is the result of a deliberate, careful selection of language means which in their correlation constitute this style. This can scarcely be attained in the oral variety of language which by its very nature will not lend itself to careful selection. However, there is folklore, which originated as an oral form of communication, and which may perhaps be classed as a style of language with its own structural and semantic laws. The survey of different functional styles will not be complete without at least a cursary look into what constitutes the very notion of text The word'text', which has imperceptibly crept into common use, has never been linguistically ascertained. It is so broad in its application that it can refer to a span of utterance consisting of two lines, on the one hand, and to a whole novel, on the other. Therefore the word needs specification in order to make clear what particular kind of language product has the right to be termed text. The student of functional styles will undoubtedly benefit by looking at the text from an angle different from what he has hitherto been used to. When analysing the linguistic nature of a text it is first of all necessary to keep in mind the concept of permanence as set against ephemerality. Text, being the result of language activity, enjoys permanence inasmuch as it belongs to the written variety of language. Text can be what it claims to be only if it possesses the quality of integrity, i.e. wholeness characterized by its gestalt (see p. 30). In other words, text must enjoy a kind of independent existence; it must be an entity in itself. The integrity of the text presupposes the subordination of certain parts to one particular part which reveals the main idea and the purport of the writer. It has already been stated that a text consists of units which we called supra-phrasal (see p. 194). These units are not equal in their significance: some of them bear reference to the main idea, others only back up the purport of the author. It follows then that supra-phrasal units can be classified as predicative and relative. The interrelation between these will show what kind, of importance the author attaches to one or other part of the utterance. The theory of communication has brought about new concepts regarding the information imparted by different texts. It will be of use to distinguish between the following terms: meaning, signified tion and content. We shall reserve the term 'meaning* for the semantics of a morpheme, a word or of a word-combination. The term 'signification' is here suggested to refer only to the sentence and supra-phrasal units. The term 'content' should be reserved for the information imparted by the whole of the text. It follows then that the information contained in a text is its content. However, the content is not a mechanical summing up of the significations of the sentences and the supra-phrasal units. Likewise, the signification of a sentence or of a supra-phrasal unit is not a mechanical summary of meanings of the constituents, i.e. of the words or word-combinations. The integrating power of the text greatly influences the signification of the sentences, depriving them of the independence they would enjoy in isolation. The same can be observed in the sentence, where the words to a greater or lesser degree lose their independence and are subjected to sometimes almost imperceptible semantic modifications. To phrase the issue differently, the content of a text modifies the significations of the sentences and the meanings of the words and phrases. The integrating power of the text is considerable and requires careful observation. The informati&n conveyed by a^text may be of different kinds; in particular, two kinds of information might be singled out, 'viz. content-conceptual and' content-factual. Content-conceptual information is that which reveals the formation of notions, ideas or concepts. This kind of information is not confined to merely imparting intelligence, faots (real or imaginary), descriptions, events, proceedings, etc. It4s much more complicated. Content-conceptual information is not always easily discernible. It is something that may not lie on the surface of its verbal exposition. It can only be grasped after a minute examination of the constituents of the text provided that the reader has acquired the skill of siipralinear analysis. Moreover, it may have various interpretations and not infrequently reveals divergent views as to its purport. It follows then that content-conceptual information is mainly found in the belles-lettres language style. Here it reigns supreme although it may also be encountered in some other functional styles and particularly in diplomatic texts. Content-factual information is that contained in what we have al- ready named matter-of-fact styles, i.e. in newspaper style, in the texts of official documents and in some others. The classification of information into content-conceptual and content-factual should not lead to the conclusion that texts of a scientific nature, for example, are deprived of concepts. The word 'conceptual1 has multi-dimensional parametres, i.e. it can be applied to different phenomena. Scientific.treatises and monographs are undoubtedly characterized by original concepts, i. e. theories, hypotheses, propositions. But these concepts are explicitly formulated and need no special stylistic inventory to decode them. Whereas the concepts contained in works of art (to which the functional style of belles-lettres belongs) are to be derived from the gestalt of the work. Taken by itself, such a division of information may appear unconvincing, inasmuch as too many interpretations of the word 'conceptual' can be suggested. But its'aim, be it repeated, is to emphasize the crucial difference between what is more or less clearly stated in verbal chains and what is only suggested and therefore needs mental effort to get at what is said by the unsaid. In conclusion we suggest the following procedures in stylistic analysis which will facilitate the process of disclosing the kind of information contained in the given text. The first procedure is to ascertain the kind of text being dealt with. This procedure may be called the taxonomic stage of analysis. Taxonomy is the science of classification. It states the principles according to which objects are classified. There is an immediate need to get a clear idea as to what functional style this or that text belongs. Furthermore, the tax-onomical analysis will bring to mind a definite model of a text in the given style. Sometimes it is not enough to state that the text belongs to, let us say, the style of .official documents. It is necessary to specify what kind of a document is being analysed. Thus, it is very important to find out whether the text is a memorandum, or a note, or a protest, or a pact, etc. If the text is one that belongs to the belles-lettres style, it is necessary to point out what kind of a text it is, viz. a poem (what type), a story, a novel and further, within it, a description, a portrait, a conversation (dialogue), the author's narrative, his speculations, etc. The second procedure, which may be called the content-grasping stage, aims at an approximate understanding of the content of .the given text. It does not claim to be a complete and exhaustive penetration into the hidden purport of the author. The conceptual information will be disclosed at later stages in the analysis. However, this .superficial grasping of the general content is an important stage, it should stand out against a deeper understanding of the information the text contains in the “broad meaning of the term. The third procedure, which might be called semantic, has as its purpose the close observation of the meanings of separate words and word combinations as well as of the significations of the various sentences and supra-phrasal units. This stage of the analysis predetermines the lines of further analysis which will reveal the deeper information. In maintaining this procedure it is vitally important not to lose sight of the fact that, as has been pointed out before, the meanings of words and the significations of the sentences and SPUs are liable to modifications under the integrating power of the whole of the text, its gestalt. It is advisable at this stage of analysis to consult dictionaries inasmuch as dictionaries will show the polysemy of the words, thus enabling the student to distinguish a simultaneous realization of two or more meanings of a word in the sentence. The fourth procedure, which should be called the stylistic stage, aims at finding out what additional information might-be imparted by the author's use of various stylistic devices, by the juxtaposition of sentences within a larger frame of utterance, that is, in the SPU, and also by the interdependence of predicative and relative SPUs. The fifth procedure, which conventionally might be called the functional stage of analysis, brings us back to the second one, i.e. the content-grasping stage. This analysis sets the task of investigating the conceptual information contained in the whole of the text. In maintaining this stage of analysis the student should assemble the previously acquired data and make a kind of synthesis of all the procedures. There is no hierarchy in maintaining analysis procedures but the suggested sequence has proved to be the most efficient in getting a deeper insight into what constitutes the notion text. Contents I. Introduction 1. General Notes on Style and Stylistics . . 7 ............ 9 2. Expressive Means (EM) and Stylistic Devices (SD) .......... 25 3. General Notes on Functional Styles of Language ...... '. . . . 32 4. Varieties of Language ” t ................... 35 5. A Brief Outline of the Development of the English Literary (Standard) Language t * t ^ t ......................... 41 6. Meaning from a Stylistic Point of View .............. 57 Part II. Stylistic Classification of the English Vocabulary 1. General Considerations > t .................... 70 2. Neutral, Common Literary and Common Colloquial Vocabulary ... 72 3. Special Literary Vocabulary t .................. 76 a) Terms .. t .t .....: \ .-r ............... 76 b) Poetic and Highly Literary Words .............. 79 c) Archaic, Obsolescent and Obsolete Words ............ 83 d) Barbarisms and Foreignisms .................. 87 e) Literary Coinages (Including Nonce-Words) ........... 92 4. Special Colloquial Vocabulary .................. 104 a) Slang t , t ........................ 104 b) Jargonisms , * , ........................ 109 c) Professionalisms , t , t .................... 113 d) Dialectal Words it t -. .^ ................... 116 e) Vulgar Words or Vulgarisms ............ .\. .... 118 f) Colloquial Coinages (Words and Meanings) ............ 119 Part III. Phonetic Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices General Notes ............................ 123 Onomatopoeia ... t ........................ 124 Alliteration . e **......................... 126 Rhyme ; ...... %. ....................... 128 Rhythm , , . ” .......................... 129 Part IV. Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices A. Intentional Mixing of the Stylistic Aspect of. Words ... ...... 136 В. Interaction of Different Types of Lexical Meaning ............ 138 1. Interaction of Primary Dictionary and Contextually Imposed Meanings 139 Metaphor ............................. 139 Metonymy t ........ ^ ............... \ ... 144 Irony , 5 ............................ 146 2. Interaction of Primary and Derivative Logical Meanings ...... 148 Stylistic Devices Based on Polysemantics Effect, Zeugma and Pun .... 148 3. Interaction of Logical and Emotive Meanings ............ 153 Interjections and Exclamatory Words ............... 154 The Epithet ,,,*....................... 157 Oxymoron >“. “ “ ....................... 162 4. Interaction of Logical and Nominal Meanings ........... 164 Antonomasia ........................... 164 C. Intensification of a Certain Feature of a Thing or Phenomenon ...... 166 ' Simile ............................... 167 /, • ^Periphrasis .I.....'..............'...-..... 169 !""' Euphemism ............................. 173 Hyperbole .............................. 176 D. Peculiar Use of Set Expressions .................... 177 The Cliche .............................. 177 Proverbs and Sayings .. :< ....................... 181 Epigrams .............................. 184 Quotations ............................. 186 Allusions .............................. 187 .Decomposition of Set Phrases .................... 189“ 5 Part V. Syntactical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices General Considerations .......................... '191 ВГ Problems Concerning the Composition of Spans of Utterance Larger than the Sentence .............................. 193 Supra-Phrasal Units ......................... 194 The Paragraph ........................... 198 C. Compositional Patterns of Syntactical Arrangement .......... 202 Stylistic Inversion .......................... 203 •j Detached Construction ....................... 205 /Parallel Construction ........................ 208 [Chiasmus (Reversed Parallel Construction) .............. 209 Repetition ............................. 211 Enumeration . . . ......................... 216 Suspense. . ....... . ..................... 218 Climax (Gradation) ... \ ...................... 219 Antithesis .............................. 222 D. Particular Ways of Combining Parts of the Utterance (Linkage) . . . . ; 225 , Asyndeton ............................. 226 Polysyndeton . > .-,-......................... 226 The Gap-Sentence -Link . .^. .................... 227 E. Particular Use of Colloquial Constructions .............. 230 Ellipsis". .............................. 231 Break-in-the-Narrative(Aposiopesis) .................. 233 Question-in-the-Narrative . . . ................... 235 Represented Speech ......................... 236 a) Uttered Represented Speech ................... 238 b) Unuttered or Inner Represented Speech ............. 241 F. Stylistic Use of Structural Meaning ................. 244 Rhetorical Questions V * * . . ................... 244 Litotes ............................... Part VI. Functional Styles of the English Language Introductory Remarks ......................... 249 A. The belles-lettres Style ....................... 250 1. Language of Poetry ........................ 252 a) Compositional Patterns of Rhythmical Arrangement ........ 252 Meter and Line ., ,• ..................... 252 The Stanza ...... §. .................... 258 Free Verse and Accented Verse '. ................ 261 b) Lexical and Syntactical Features of Verse ............ 264 2. Emotive Prose .......................... 270 3. Language of the Drama .................... 281 В Publicists Style ........................... 287 1 Oratory and Speeches ^ ...................... 288 2. The Essay ............................ 293 3. Journalistic Articles ........................ 295 С Newspaper Style (written by V. L. Nayer) .............. 295 1. Brief News Items ........................ 298 2. Advertisements and Announcements ................ 301 3.' The Headline ........................... 302 4 The Editorial ........................... 305 D Scientific Prose Style ......................... 307 E. The Style of Official Documents ................... 312 Final Remarks ............*................. 319 Гальперин И.Р. Стилистика английского языка / И.Р.Гальперин. - М.: Высшая школа, 1981 |