козаев курсовая. Курсовая работа По дисциплине Предпринимательское право
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1. Общая характеристика и признаки ценной бумагиВ соответствии со ст. 128 гражданского кодекса российской федерации (далее - ГК РФ) ценные бумаги признаются объектами гражданских прав и являются вещами. Более конкретное указание на правовую природу данных объектов содержится в п. 2 ст. 130 ГК РФ, согласно которому ценные бумаги суть движимые вещи1. Вместе с тем обособление законодателем ценных бумаг и денег из ряда традиционных вещей недвусмысленно говорит о специфическом характере данных объектов. Вопрос о том, являются ли ценные бумаги в действительности пусть и особой, но все-таки разновидностью вещей, до настоящего времени является одним из основных вопросов теории ценных бумаг. Несмотря на прямое указание современного гражданского законодательства о "вещности" ценной бумаги, вопрос о природе ценной бумаги не утратил своей актуальности во многом благодаря появлению бездокументарных ценных бумаг. Тенденция дематериализации отдельных видов ценных бумаг самым непосредственным образом оказала влияние на общее понятие ценных бумаг, в связи с чем одни исследователи настаивают сегодня на неадекватности правового регулирования ценных бумаг с позиции классической теории, другие - на преемственности традиций российского гражданского права и сохранении выработанной в конце 19 в. Логики построения института ценных бумаг. infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of offenses and related offenses causing serious or moderate bodily harm through negligence - according to two criteria - the form of guilt and age of the perpetrator, and so on. d. A comparison of the crimes under consideration for several general criteria for each pair of specific offenses characterized by the fact or some combination of these criteria. Of the various criteria related to the area of the first object, the next two - to the objective side, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime. On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated: a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator; on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior; b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient; on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient. The second single criterion - the form and content of the act - splits: a) illegal abortion that has caused grievous bodily harm to the victim, the responsibility for which is set h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, committed only in the form of action; failure to render aid to the patient, which caused by negligence moderate or serious harm to health under Art. 124 of the Criminal Code committed in the form of a inaction; grievous bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission; b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence. The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated: a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him; b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code. The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish: a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim; b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim. On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated: a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule; b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code. It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria. Among the criteria for distinguishing individual crimes of this group the first two relate to the field of object of crime, third and fourth - to the objective side, the next three - to the subjective side, the eighth - to the subject of the crime and the ninth - the composition of crime in general. On the first criterion, the unit - especially the object of crime - delimited: a) Special aggravating circumstances intentional infliction of serious bodily injury that resulted in the death of the victim (Art. 4, Art. 111 of the Criminal Code). Crime infringes on two immediate object - public relations, providing life and social relationships underpinning human health; b) all other compounds (basic, skilled and highly skilled) crime of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm (h respectively. 1, 2 and 3 of Art. 111 of the Criminal Code), characterized by only one - the last of these - the object. The second single criterion - the features that characterize the victim - allows to distinguish between: a) qualified offenses of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition; The relevant legal and reasonable qualification of crimes is provided by not only establishing set of objective and subjective features inherent to each of them, but a precise definition of their composition. As rightly pointed VN Kudryavtsev, "setting the characteristic features of this act, rejecting those features that are not inherent to it, gradually deepening and analysis of legal norms and the factual circumstances of the offense, we arrive at a single set of attributes describing the offense and distinguish it from others." Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation." Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient. It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes. Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups: 1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes; 2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms; 3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime. Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime. The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator. The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject. For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime. The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature. From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question. The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code). The second general criterion - the severity of harm to human health - is to distinguish offenses, which is expressed as a consequence of, firstly, grievous bodily harm, and secondly, of moderate bodily harm, or third, minor harm to human health. The first group of offenses referred to in Art. 111, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, Art. 114, h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, 2 tbsp. 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 or h. 2 tablespoons. 124 of the Criminal Code; second - Art. 112, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm), h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm) or white. 1 tbsp. 124 of the Criminal Code; third - Art. 115 or 117 of the Criminal Code. In addition, the severity of injury in the form of the disease are divided compositions of infection with venereal disease and HIV infection established respectively in Art. And 121 h. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code. The third general criterion - a form of guilt - makes it possible to distinguish between crimes against human health, committed, on the one hand, deliberately, on the other - by negligence. The compositions of these crimes, the subjective side of which is characterized by fault in the form of intention, described in the article. 111-115, 117, 121, ch. 2, 3 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code, and in the form of negligence - Art. 118 h. 4 Art. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123, Art. 124 of the Criminal Code. Finally, the fourth general criterion - the age of the perpetrator - are different: a) offenses of intentional infliction of serious and severe harm in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih under Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, the subject of which is a person who has reached at the time the crime was committed 14 years of age; b) offenses of intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator of a crime of bodily harm , torture, causing grievous bodily harm through negligence, venereal diseases or HIV, inadvertently causing grievous bodily harm as a consequence of illegal abortion and negligently causing moderate or serious harm to health as a result of non-assistance to the patient (respectively Art. 113 h . 1, 2, Art. 114, Art. 115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2-4 Art. 122, h. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code), the subject of which is the person who has attained 16 years age. Thus, offenses against human health, provided the listed articles of the Criminal Code, are differentiated from each other in one or more of the general criteria. For example, the offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm differ only by one criterion - the degree of severity of the harm; mentioned offenses and related offenses causing serious or moderate bodily harm through negligence - according to two criteria - the form of guilt and age of the perpetrator, and so on. d. A comparison of the crimes under consideration for several general criteria for each pair of specific offenses characterized by the fact or some combination of these criteria. Of the various criteria related to the area of the first object, the next two - to the objective side, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime. On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated: a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator; on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior; b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient; on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient. The second single criterion - the form and content of the act - splits: a) illegal abortion that has caused grievous bodily harm to the victim, the responsibility for which is set h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, committed only in the form of action; failure to render aid to the patient, which caused by negligence moderate or serious harm to health under Art. 124 of the Criminal Code committed in the form of a inaction; grievous bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission; b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence. The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated: a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him; b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code. The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish: a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim; b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim. On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated: a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule; b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code. It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria. Among the criteria for distinguishing individual crimes of this group the first two relate to the field of object of crime, third and fourth - to the objective side, the next three - to the subjective side, the eighth - to the subject of the crime and the ninth - the composition of crime in general. On the first criterion, the unit - especially the object of crime - delimited: a) Special aggravating circumstances intentional infliction of serious bodily injury that resulted in the death of the victim (Art. 4, Art. 111 of the Criminal Code). Crime infringes on two immediate object - public relations, providing life and social relationships underpinning human health; b) all other compounds (basic, skilled and highly skilled) crime of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm (h respectively. 1, 2 and 3 of Art. 111 of the Criminal Code), characterized by only one - the last of these - the object. The second single criterion - the features that characterize the victim - allows to distinguish between: a) qualified offenses of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition; The relevant legal and reasonable qualification of crimes is provided by not only establishing set of objective and subjective features inherent to each of them, but a precise definition of their composition. As rightly pointed VN Kudryavtsev, "setting the characteristic features of this act, rejecting those features that are not inherent to it, gradually deepening and analysis of legal norms and the factual circumstances of the offense, we arrive at a single set of attributes describing the offense and distinguish it from others." Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation." Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient. It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes. Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups: 1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes; 2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms; 3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime. Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime. The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator. The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject. For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime. The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature. From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question. The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting fro Изучение различных публикаций, монографий и иных трудов в сфере рынка ценных бумаг позволило автору статьи сделать вывод о том, что после возрождения на территории бывшего ссср института ценных бумаг наиболее бурные дискуссии по поводу правовой природы ценных бумаг, и в частности возможности отнесения бездокументарных ценных бумаг к собственно ценным бумагам, имели место в период с 1996 по 1999 г. Столь резко возникший интерес к основной проблеме ценных бумаг, по всей вероятности, обусловлен принятием Федерального закона от 22 апреля 1996 г. "О рынке ценных бумаг"2 (далее - Федеральный закон о РЦБ), положения которого во многом шли вразрез с пониманием кодексом ценной бумаги исключительно как документа. В дальнейшем вплоть до 2003 г. Указанный выше вопрос интересовал исследователей чаще не как самоцель, а именно с позиций определения правового статуса и защиты прав владельцев ценных бумаг. И наконец, поправки в абз. 1 ст. 16 Федерального закона о РЦБ, вступившие в силу с 4 января 2003 г., вновь привлекли внимание юристов к проблеме сущности ценных бумаг, поскольку указанные изменения предусмотрели возможность оборота именных эмиссионных ценных бумаг только в бездокументарной форме за исключением случаев, предусмотренных федеральными законами3. Возможность существования определенного вида ценных бумаг только в форме "без документа" еще сильнее обнаружила кризис современной теории ценных бумаг, проявляющийся прежде всего в явном противоречии норм федерального закона, касающихся определения ценной бумаги, нормам ГК РФ как основного источника гражданского законодательства. Указанное несоответствие можно продемонстрировать на простом примере. Согласно ст. 143 ГК РФ акция относится к ценным бумагам. Таково было общепринятое мнение и в литературе. Правильность его считалась настолько очевидной, что обычно даже не подкреплялась никакими доказательствами. Следуя же логике федерального закона о РЦБ, акция с 2003 г. Может существовать исключительно в бездокументарной форме, что не позволяет отнести ее к разряду ценных бумаг в силу определения кодексом ценной бумаги как документа, т.е. вещи, существующей в объективной форме, доступной физическому восприятию человеком. Соответственно в связи с принятием федерального закона о РЦБ и сложившейся практикой оборота бездокументарных акций утверждение о том, что акция - ценная бумага, в настоящее время не является столь уж бесспорным. Так, например, по мнению В.А. Белова, "акции как ценные бумаги... Постепенно сделались чисто номинальным понятием, не имеющим какого-либо юридического значения"4. Безусловным признаком вещей, признаваемых таковыми юридически, является их ценность для человека, которая определяется наличием у нее своих собственных полезных свойств. В случае с ценными бумагами потребительская стоимость и интерес к присвоению определяются совокупностью прав, составляющих содержание ценной бумаги, но отнюдь не самим документом как предметом материального мира. Утверждение о том, что с экономической точки зрения любая ценная бумага не является вещью, поскольку этот объект ценен только в силу социальных свойств, можно считать общепризнанным в юридической литературе. В экономической литературе под ценной бумагой понимается особый товар, который обращается на особом, своем собственном, рынке - рынке ценных бумаг, но не имеет ни вещественной, ни денежной потребительной стоимости, т.е. Не является материальным товаром. "ценная бумага - это форма существования капитала, отличная от его товарной, производительной и денежной форм, которая может передаваться вместо него самого, обращаться на рынке как товар и приносить доход"5. infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of offenses and related offenses causing serious or moderate bodily harm through negligence - according to two criteria - the form of guilt and age of the perpetrator, and so on. d. A comparison of the crimes under consideration for several general criteria for each pair of specific offenses characterized by the fact or some combination of these criteria. Of the various criteria related to the area of the first object, the next two - to the objective side, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime. On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated: a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator; on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior; b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient; on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient. The second single criterion - the form and content of the act - splits: a) illegal abortion that has caused grievous bodily harm to the victim, the responsibility for which is set h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, committed only in the form of action; failure to render aid to the patient, which caused by negligence moderate or serious harm to health under Art. 124 of the Criminal Code committed in the form of a inaction; grievous bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission; b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence. The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated: a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him; b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code. The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish: a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim; b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim. On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated: a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule; b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code. It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria. Among the criteria for distinguishing individual crimes of this group the first two relate to the field of object of crime, third and fourth - to the objective side, the next three - to the subjective side, the eighth - to the subject of the crime and the ninth - the composition of crime in general. On the first criterion, the unit - especially the object of crime - delimited: a) Special aggravating circumstances intentional infliction of serious bodily injury that resulted in the death of the victim (Art. 4, Art. 111 of the Criminal Code). Crime infringes on two immediate object - public relations, providing life and social relationships underpinning human health; b) all other compounds (basic, skilled and highly skilled) crime of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm (h respectively. 1, 2 and 3 of Art. 111 of the Criminal Code), characterized by only one - the last of these - the object. The second single criterion - the features that characterize the victim - allows to distinguish between: a) qualified offenses of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition; The relevant legal and reasonable qualification of crimes is provided by not only establishing set of objective and subjective features inherent to each of them, but a precise definition of their composition. As rightly pointed VN Kudryavtsev, "setting the characteristic features of this act, rejecting those features that are not inherent to it, gradually deepening and analysis of legal norms and the factual circumstances of the offense, we arrive at a single set of attributes describing the offense and distinguish it from others." Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation." Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient. It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes. Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups: 1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes; 2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms; 3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime. Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime. The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator. The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject. For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime. The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature. From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question. The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting from exposure to biological factors of the environment (they are provided by Art. 121, ch. 2, 3, 4, Art. 122 of the Criminal Code). The second general criterion - the severity of harm to human health - is to distinguish offenses, which is expressed as a consequence of, firstly, grievous bodily harm, and secondly, of moderate bodily harm, or third, minor harm to human health. The first group of offenses referred to in Art. 111, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, Art. 114, h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of grievous bodily harm), h. 1, 2 tbsp. 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 or h. 2 tablespoons. 124 of the Criminal Code; second - Art. 112, 113 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm), h. 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code (in the actual infliction of moderate bodily harm) or white. 1 tbsp. 124 of the Criminal Code; third - Art. 115 or 117 of the Criminal Code. In addition, the severity of injury in the form of the disease are divided compositions of infection with venereal disease and HIV infection established respectively in Art. And 121 h. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code. The third general criterion - a form of guilt - makes it possible to distinguish between crimes against human health, committed, on the one hand, deliberately, on the other - by negligence. The compositions of these crimes, the subjective side of which is characterized by fault in the form of intention, described in the article. 111-115, 117, 121, ch. 2, 3 tbsp. 122 of the Criminal Code, and in the form of negligence - Art. 118 h. 4 Art. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123, Art. 124 of the Criminal Code. Finally, the fourth general criterion - the age of the perpetrator - are different: a) offenses of intentional infliction of serious and severe harm in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih under Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, the subject of which is a person who has reached at the time the crime was committed 14 years of age; b) offenses of intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator of a crime of bodily harm , torture, causing grievous bodily harm through negligence, venereal diseases or HIV, inadvertently causing grievous bodily harm as a consequence of illegal abortion and negligently causing moderate or serious harm to health as a result of non-assistance to the patient (respectively Art. 113 h . 1, 2, Art. 114, Art. 115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2-4 Art. 122, h. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code), the subject of which is the person who has attained 16 years age. Thus, offenses against human health, provided the listed articles of the Criminal Code, are differentiated from each other in one or more of the general criteria. For example, the offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm differ only by one criterion - the degree of severity of the harm; mentioned offenses and related offenses causing serious or moderate bodily harm through negligence - according to two criteria - the form of guilt and age of the perpetrator, and so on. d. A comparison of the crimes under consideration for several general criteria for each pair of specific offenses characterized by the fact or some combination of these criteria. Of the various criteria related to the area of the first object, the next two - to the objective side, the fourth - to the subjective side, and five - to the subject of crime. On the first single criterion - features that characterize the victim, including his actions and behavior - demarcated: a) on the one hand, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion, intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self defense, intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (Article . 113, ch. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), when the victims are, respectively: a person who commits illegal or immoral act or characterized by regular illegal or immoral behavior; the person who committed socially dangerous act which constitutes a crime; the perpetrator; on the other - the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, both in the absence of signs of privilegiruyuschih, responsibility for which is set Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code and in formulations which are not inherent to the victim of these actions or behavior; b) on the one hand, illegal abortion, provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, which is the victim of a pregnant woman; failure to render aid to the patient, responsibility for which is set Art. 124, which is recognized as victims of the patient; on the other - grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, the victims of which can be any person, other than a pregnant woman or the patient if there is, of course, other features that complement the offenses characterizing the illegal abortion or failure to provide care to the patient. The second single criterion - the form and content of the act - splits: a) illegal abortion that has caused grievous bodily harm to the victim, the responsibility for which is set h. 3 tablespoons. 123 of the Criminal Code, committed only in the form of action; failure to render aid to the patient, which caused by negligence moderate or serious harm to health under Art. 124 of the Criminal Code committed in the form of a inaction; grievous bodily harm through negligence, the responsibility for which is set Art. 118 of the Criminal Code is committed by an act or omission; b) torture under Art. 117 of the Criminal Code, which caused intentional infliction of bodily harm, committed only in the form of action, the content of which is to cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence; intentional infliction of bodily harm, the responsibility for which is defined in Art. 115 of the Criminal Code, takes the form of an act or omission; act, expressed in the form of action, which does not cause physical or mental suffering through systematic beatings or use other forms of violence. The third individual criteria - environment (conditions) of the crime - are differentiated: a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily injury in the heat of passion; intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm in excess of self-defense; intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm in excess of measures necessary to apprehend the perpetrator (art. 113, h. 1, 2, Art. 114 of the Criminal Code), which included the situation (condition) is shown, respectively, in the situation created result of unlawful or immoral acts or unlawful conduct of systematic victim caused the guilty state of sudden strong emotion; in an environment committed socially dangerous encroachment victims forced to resort to the guilty-defense; in an atmosphere of the crime victim, forcing the perpetrator to try to detain him; b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, responsibility for which is set respectively in Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, precluding their commission in an environment (environment), as described in Art. 113, h. 1, 2 tbsp. 114 of the Criminal Code. The fourth single criterion - especially intent - is used to distinguish: a) intentional infliction of serious or moderate bodily harm, the responsibility for which is provided art. 113 of the Criminal Code, characterized by sudden-onset intent due to unlawful or immoral acts or systematic unlawful or immoral behavior of the victim; b) the intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm, provided for respectively Art. 111 and 112 of the Criminal Code, which is not inherent in suddenly arisen intention, caused by such acts or conduct of the victim. On the fifth individual criteria - features that characterize a special subject - delineated: a) illegal abortion which negligently caused serious bodily injury to the victim, and the failure to provide care to the patient, resulting in the infliction of moderate or serious harm to health of the victim (Art. 3 of Art. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code); subject these special acts - respectively, a person without a medical education corresponding profile, including previously tried for illegal abortion, and the person obliged to provide assistance to patients in accordance with the law or with a special rule; b) causing grievous bodily harm by negligence under Art. 118 of the Criminal Code, which is the subject of a general, ie, not possessing the special features of the subject inherent to the subject of crime, responsibility for which is provided h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code. It follows that the considered views and related offenses differ in one or more individual criteria. For example, torture, which caused bodily harm, and intentional infliction of bodily harm - only one criterion (the form and content of the act); intentional infliction of grave injury or injury of average gravity of passion and intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm or intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm - according to three criteria (features characterizing the victim environment (conditions) of the crime, and the peculiarities of intent), etc. Differentiation of crimes against human health in several individual criteria involves the use of combinations of these criteria. Among the criteria for distinguishing individual crimes of this group the first two relate to the field of object of crime, third and fourth - to the objective side, the next three - to the subjective side, the eighth - to the subject of the crime and the ninth - the composition of crime in general. On the first criterion, the unit - especially the object of crime - delimited: a) Special aggravating circumstances intentional infliction of serious bodily injury that resulted in the death of the victim (Art. 4, Art. 111 of the Criminal Code). Crime infringes on two immediate object - public relations, providing life and social relationships underpinning human health; b) all other compounds (basic, skilled and highly skilled) crime of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm (h respectively. 1, 2 and 3 of Art. 111 of the Criminal Code), characterized by only one - the last of these - the object. The second single criterion - the features that characterize the victim - allows to distinguish between: a) qualified offenses of intentional infliction of grievous bodily harm, intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm and torture (respectively p. "and" h. 2, Art. 111, n. "b" h. 2, Art. 112 and n. "b" h. 2, Art. 117 of the Criminal Code), in which the victim is a person who performs official duties or performing a public duty, or his family; qualified offenses of intentional infliction of serious bodily injury and intentional infliction of moderate bodily harm (n, respectively. "b" h. 2, Art. 111 and n. "in" h. 2, Art. 112), the victim in which the person known to the perpetrator in a helpless condition; The relevant legal and reasonable qualification of crimes is provided by not only establishing set of objective and subjective features inherent to each of them, but a precise definition of their composition. As rightly pointed VN Kudryavtsev, "setting the characteristic features of this act, rejecting those features that are not inherent to it, gradually deepening and analysis of legal norms and the factual circumstances of the offense, we arrive at a single set of attributes describing the offense and distinguish it from others." Differentiation of crimes against human health, responsibility for which is set Art. 111-115, 117, 118, 121, ch. 2, 3, 4 tbsp. 122, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code - the most important condition for the correct qualification of crimes of this group, as compositions of these crimes are related: that "offenses, differing in one or more of the grounds and in need of delimitation." Signs of serving to distinguish offenses relate to different elements of these compositions. Given the large number of crimes against human health and the even greater number of compositions (if we consider all the basic, skilled, very skilled and preferred formulations of these crimes) and recognizing each of them is independent, it is unlikely to carry out a rational delimitation of each composition separately from each of the following , and the resulting listing in each case the totality of dividing signs (ie the first composition from the second, third, fourth, etc., the second from the third, fourth, fifth, etc.), because this method is very cumbersome , uneconomical and inefficient. It is more logical to use another method, which consists in distinguishing first group consisted of crimes against human health, with common symptoms, and then individual formulations of these crimes. Based on the proposed method, the criteria for distinguishing the crimes against human health, or demarcation signs, it is appropriate to allocate conditionally into three groups: 1) general - a criteria to distinguish between the major groups, including the other, of crimes; 2) individual - a criteria to distinguish between basic and preferred formulations of crimes and offenses provided for general and special norms; 3) unit - a criteria to distinguish between basic, skilled and highly skilled compositions of the same type of crime or the qualified and highly qualified offenses between themselves in one type of crime. Division considered the criteria for these types creates, in my view, an opportunity to make a distinction from the general to the particular, and thereby avoid repetition, which can hinder the perception of differences between the crime. The general criteria for demarcation of crimes against human health need to include: a) the nature of the harm caused to human health; b) the severity of the harm; c) the form of guilt; g) the age of the perpetrator. The individual criteria: a) the features characterizing the victim, including his actions and behavior; b) the form and content of the act; c) the situation (condition) of the crime; d) particularly intent; e) The features that characterize the special subject. For a single criteria: a) the particular object of the crime; b) the features that characterize the victim; c) the content of the act; g) the degree of bodily harm; d) method of the crime; e) characteristics of guilt, particularly intent; g) motive; h) purpose; i) the features that characterize the special subject; k) features characterizing complicity in the crime. The presence of a differentiating feature necessitates the application of criminal law, which provided for this feature. From the general criteria specified delineation first two characterize the objective side, the third - the subjective side, and the fourth - the subject of the crimes in question. The first common criterion - the nature of the harm caused to human health, - allows to distinguish between offenses in which the result is expressed in the form of injuries, consisting of violating anatomic integrity of organs and tissues and their physiological functions or disease except STD and HIV infection or pathological condition resulting from exposure to various environmental factors: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological, psychic. In other words, allocated offenses described in the article. 111 - 115, 117, 118, h. 3 tablespoons. 123 and Art. 124 of the Criminal Code, and offenses in which the result is expressed in disease venereal disease or HIV infection resulting fro Изложенное подтверждает вывод об условности отнесения ценных бумаг к вещам даже в случае наличия документарной формы закрепления прав. Ценная бумага, закрепляющая определенные обязательственные права, исторически возникла как объект вещных прав, однако вследствие такого искусственного "овеществления" ценная бумага не стала вещью в собственном смысле этого слова, указанный прием лишь позволил без особых препятствий включить права в имущественный оборот наподобие реальных вещей6. В соответствии с ч. 1 ст. 142 ГК РФ ценная бумага - это документ, удостоверяющий с соблюдением установленной формы и обязательных реквизитов имущественные права, осуществление или передача которых возможны только при его предъявлении. Применительно же к бездокументарным ценным бумагам в кодексе отсутствует их легальное определение, но используются следующие выражения: "права, удостоверенные ценной бумагой" (п. 2 ст. 142 ГК РФ), "фиксация прав, закрепляемых именной или ордерной ценной бумагой, в бездокументарной форме" (п. 1 ст. 149 ГК РФ). Данные формулировки при отсутствии дефиниции исследуемого объекта позволяют усомниться в двойственной природе бездокументарных ценных бумаг и соответственно их "ценнобумажной" сущности. Рассматривая сущность бездокументарной ценной бумаги, А.С. Шевченко подчеркивает, что "бездокументарная... Ценная бумага не может рассматриваться как объект вещных прав; это совокупность прав, зафиксированных в бездокументарной форме, к которым должны применяться нормы обязательственного права... Поэтому не может быть признан удачным и сам термин "бездокументарные ценные бумаги", так как нельзя смешивать понятие ценной бумаги как документа... С иными способами фиксации прав"7. По мнению Е.А. Суханова, бездокументарные ценные бумаги не являются ценными бумаги в прямом смысле слова, а представляют собой лишь способ фиксации имущественных прав8. В частности, Е.А. Суханов утверждает: "...ясно, что бездокументарные ценные бумаги не могут быть объектом права собственности, ибо в отличие от классических ценных бумаг не являются вещами. В связи с этим их использование в гражданском обороте нуждается в специальных правилах, а не в традиционных нормах, рассчитанных на оборот вещей - предметов материального мира"9. Как видно из изложенных позиций, в основе концепции лежит представление о том, что, совершая сделки с документарными ценными бумагами, их участники имеют дело с такими объектами гражданско-правовых отношений, как вещи; если же сделки заключаются по поводу бездокументарных ценных бумаг, то имеется в виду совершенно иной объект гражданских прав, а именно имущественные права10. Одним из немногих претендующих на название единого, родового понятия ценной бумаги является определение, предложенное м. Крыловой: "ценная бумага - это нематериальная вещь, представляющая собой совокупность указанных в законе прав, удостоверение, передача и осуществление которых возможны только в порядке и способами, определенными законом либо подзаконными актами"11. Отношения, опосредующие жизнь ценной бумаги, всегда предполагают дуализм ценной бумаги, в связи с чем любая ценная бумага предполагает наличие вещно-правовых (абсолютных) отношений, возникающих по поводу принадлежности ценных бумаг как объектов гражданского права, и обязательственно-правовых (относительных), связанных с осуществлением прав, удостоверенных самой ценной бумагой. |