М. В. Ломоносова Филологический факультет Кафедра английского языкознания Когезия и когеренция в философском дискурсе на материале эссе Бертрана Расселла "О природе знакомства". Курсовая
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Some special kinds of personal reference.This part of specification of referential relations includes: 5 extended and text reference a) Extended reference is a type of reference to “a whole process or complex phenomenon which is in question” (by means of third-person form it, this, or that). b) Text reference is a type of reference to a certain fact, explicitly present in a form of a clause or a stream of clauses, for example: “'Curtsey while you're thinking what to say. It saves time' – Alice wondered a little at this, but she was. Too much in awe of the Queen to disbelieve it” (from “Alice in Wonderland; see [1]). personal pronouns, possessive determiners, and possessive pronouns All features of personal pronouns as cohesive units remain relevant when it comes to possessive determiners and possessive pronouns. There is, however, a characteristic feature which makes possessive pronouns in this function quite different: possessive pronouns are doubly anaphoric, namely both referential and elliptical (for instance, a sentence “His is nice” presupposes the question “Whose what?”). demonstrative reference Syntactically, demonstratives may function as Head or Modifier within an NG. When they have the former function, they behave very much like personal pronouns, and in case of the latter one they resemble possessive adjectives. The determining semantic “category” for them is the scale of proximity (only “the” remains neutral and doesn’t possess this category). The notion of “proximity vs. non-proximity” is rather intricate and involved on the sense as it is contextually dependant on 1) whether the extent of proximity is temporal (for instance, these days – those days: current period is referred to as “the close one”; “We went to the opera last night. That was our first outing for months. – We're going to the opera tonight. This’ll be our first outing for months.” – the past is referred to by that, the future – by this) or locative (mainly in exophoric reference), or temporal and locative within a text, as the perception of speech is by nature temporal (here, in case of a dialogue, the speaker’s conversation is considered to be ‘near’, whereas the interlocutor is not). With regards to syntactic functioning of the selective demonstratives, it is worth mentioning that selective demonstratives cannot be referential to any other elements when used in their isolated form (as Head of an NG, and not the Modifier). The only exception is the case when they form the subject of “Pronoun+Verb “to be”+Nominal Part of the Predicate explaining the meaning of the pronoun” construction6. Extended reference and reference to fact incorporated in a demonstrative is very often equative as well. Selective demonstrative reference can be both anaphoric and cataphoric on the intersentential level. The The definite article has a very specific place in the whole system of cohesion in the English language. It resembles demonstratives, as it is selective, but it does not signal proximity; unlike personal or possessive pronouns their main content being persons and their role in speech situation, the definite article “has no content” [1]. It can only serve as a marker for the recipient that the speech unit modified by it can be identified from the surrounding context. The definite article cannot be used independently, and therefore it can modify any type of unit in which cohesive relation is incorporated: it can be a reiterated word or NG, a close synonym, a superordinate, or any other unit which semantically connected with another unit within discourse, and it may be difficult to distinguish some cases of the so-called “bridging” from a notion or object determined by the context of situation. demonstrative adverbs Demonstrative adverbs have to do with textual reference. In this case here can be replaced by this, and there by that, for instance: "Of course it would be all the better – ' said Alice: 'but it wouldn't be all the better his bemg punished.' 'You’ re wrong there/[in that], at any rate, – said the Queen. comparative reference Comparative reference consists of the phenomena of general reference, in which no particular quality is brought out and particular reference and general idea of “likeness” and “identity” is expressed, which presupposes comparison on the basis of a particular quality of something or its quantity. Grammatically, these adjectives and adverbs are called adjectives of comparison, and adverbs of comparison. general comparison General comparison expresses the more or less general idea of likeness, ranging from “identity” to “difference”. The reason to classify it as reference is that in case of comparison something is “like something” and not just “like” [1]. M. K. Halliday also claims that such instances, as “They were a different two colours” and “They were two different colours” should be strictly distinguished and comments upon general functioning of adjectives and adverbs of comparison in speech: “The words other, additional and else occur only in the referential sense; equal, on the other hand. is normally not referential, and can be soon1y when modifying nouns such as number, amount and quantity.” particular comparison Particular comparison establishes referential links with regards to a particular quality or to quantity of objects. It may be anaphoric, cataphoric, and very rarely exophoric [1]. The expression of particular comparison occurs in speech in the following ways: 1) comparative quantifier (more mistakes) or “an adverb of comparison submodifying a quantifier (as many mistakes…) in case of quantity relation and 2) by comparative adjective (easier), by an adverb of comparison submodifying an adjective (so easy a task), comparative adverb (Cambridge rowed faster), or an adverb of comparison submodifying an adverb (sang as sweetly). |