Курсовая 2. Мед.Текст. Особенности перевода медицинских текстов
 Скачать 170 Kb.
|
|
2.2 Highly specialized medical terminology Each science has its own highly specialized vocabulary. It includes words and concepts used only in this science, and in no other.Medical terminology is a set of words and phrases used by specialists to designate scientific concepts in the field of medicine and healthcare.Like any word, a term is a linguistic sign that has a content or meaning (semantics), and a form is a sound complex. In contrast to the words of commonly used vocabulary, the meanings of which correspond with common concepts, the meanings of terms are scientific concepts. The basic form of the term’s existence is a definition, or scientific definition, that is, establishing the meaning of a term by highlighting the distinguishing essential features of a concept. Medical terminology is a naturally occurring industry terminological system that expresses the exceptional diversity of almost all classes of concepts - generic and specific, general, concrete and abstract. Its categorical apparatus covers a thing, a process, an essence, a phenomenon, a sign, a property, quality, quantity, attitude, interaction, causality and some other categories. A systematized but specific rules list of names denoting objects of a single aggregate related to one of the fields of science, for example, anatomy, histology, embryology, microbiology, etc., is called “nomenclature”The sound complex of the term can be represented by a single word or phrase. A term in the form of a phrase consists of a defined word (noun) and its defining words (noun in the genitive or adjective) or both together. In the overwhelming majority of terms, these are names specially created in the process of scientific activity.In domestic medical terminology, the following main groups of terms can be distinguished, taking into account differences in linguistic origin, forms of writing, and functions performed at the national or international levels: 1) original Russian names; 2) internationalisms of Greek or Latin origin, of which some were borrowed in finished form ("finished words") from classical languages, while others (scientific neologisms) were created artificially from the lexical and word-building material of these languages according to their structural models, e.g. cirrhosis, stethoscope, phagocyte, leukemia, allergy, etc .; 3) primordial West Europeanisms, i.e. words that have arisen on the basis of Western European languages from their lexical and derivational material; 4) Latin terms (the so-called. Termini technici) - special reference scientific designations, designed graphically and grammatically according to the rules of the Latin language. The latter provide mutual understanding between specialists who speak different languages. An example of termini technici is modern international nomenclatures that have an officially approved status. These include, for example, the Paris anatomical nomenclature, the histological nomenclature, etc. Termini technici, which indicate diseases, pathological conditions, symptoms and syndromes, are not combined in officially approved classification lists, i.e. nomenclatures. The use of such termini technici is more traditional and optional than mandatory. Some termini technici do not have generally accepted equivalents in national languages, e.g. spina bifida anterior, situs viseerum inversus, carcinoma in situ, per os, per rectum, ex tempore, in vivo, etc. Modern medical terminology is the result of the centuries-old development of world medicine and medical science. Regardless of the national language of the countries of the European and American areas or peoples of the former USSR, medical terminology is presented, it includes a significant share of the linguistic and word-formation units that are common in language origin, as well as general structural models. This is due to the all-encompassing steady influence that has had on medical terminology for many centuries and to this day continue to be exerted by two classical languages of the ancient world - ancient Greek and Latin. Although the knowledge of the doctors of the Ancient East and, above all, Assyria, Babylon and Ancient Egypt formed the basis of medicine in Ancient Greece, in the writings of Greek doctors that have come down to us, almost no language evidence can be found that would indicate a continuity with the medical vocabulary of the peoples of Mesopotamia, India, Egypt et al. Therefore, the chronology of European medical terminology is customary to begin with the works of Hippocrates and the “Collection of Hippocrates” named after him, from where scientific medicine inherited many eg, amblyopia, cachexia, carcinoma, diapedesis, herpes, hippus, kyphosis, lordosis, coma, noma, paresis, polyp, typhoid, cholera, emphysema, epidemic, erythema, symphysis, bronchus, urethra, etc. A lot has been done to replenish medical Aristotle Dictionary. The next stage in the history of medical terminology is associated with the activities of two prominent doctors of the Alexandrian medical school of the Hellenistic era - Herophilos (Herophilos) and Erasistratus. They significantly expanded the medical dictionary due to the vocabulary of anatomical and physiological content. The medicine of Ancient Rome was only a further development of Hellenistic medicine and, to a lesser extent, was an original phenomenon. The same applies to medical terminology in Latin, as you can judge about this from the few medical writings of the Romans that have come down to us, the most significant of which was the essay “On Medicine” by Aulus Cornelius Celsus. The heir to the terminological traditions of Hellenistic medical schools was K. Galen. He clarified the meanings of the old ones, revived some hippocratic names that were almost forgotten or obscure for his contemporaries, introduced many new ones, for example, the thalamus. Significant Greek terminological legacy has been preserved for the next generation of doctors thanks to Greek writings by prominent physicians of the Byzantine period - Oribazius (Oribasius, 325–403 CE), Nemesia (Nemesius, circa 370), Aetius from Amida (Aetius , 502 - 575 gg.), Alexander Thrallesky (Alexander Tral-lianus, 525 - 605 gg.), Paul Aeginsky (Paulus Aeginensis, 625 - 690 gg.), Etc. From the 8th - 9th centuries. Greek terminology. language temporarily subsided. In the 9-10 centuries. Almost all the works of Hippocrates and C. Talon were translated into Arabic. It was on the basis of these translations that the formation of Arabic medical literature took place. An important tool for teaching medicine in Europe during the Middle Ages was the Latin translations of Arabic works, which, in turn, were very often translations or compilations of Greek sources. A medical translator needs to be able to navigate in a synonymous series, since speech practice prefers to use scientific terms-synonyms in communication with medical colleagues, and professionally reduced words in conversation with patients. For example, in communication with a patient, the doctor will use the phrase “bloating”, while in the professional community he will prefer the term “flatulence”. This must be taken into account when translating. One cannot ignore the numerous professional phrases - “clichés”, which the translator must be able to recognize and translate with the same stable speech stamps, without which communication on a professional level will be difficult. For example, the terms “dry” heart, “dry” heart, “trockenes” Herz are specific, concise, and understandable accordingly to doctors who speak Russian, English, or German. They allow you to avoid complex grammatical constructions, which is important, given the specifics of the activities of medical workers. Thus, the complexity of medical translation lies in the huge and rapidly growing vocabulary of medicine, the abundance of synonyms and idioms of a professional medical language. Of particular difficulty for medical translations is the problem of synonyms. The number of synonyms in medical terminology is impressive. Sometimes the same concept is expressed in a dozen words. For example, in German the word “tumor” is denoted by the terms “Anschwellung”, “Geschwulst”, “Gewachs”, “Knoten”, “Schwellung”, “Wulst”, “Anwuchst”, “Schwell”, “Tumor”, “Blastom” . In addition, often medical texts are distinguished by a unique construction of sentences, a peculiar structure of sentences, in which detailed definitions abound, making it difficult to determine the relationship between the sentence members, words. All this can lead to the emergence of ambiguity of the translated information. In addition to the foregoing, medical texts are also characterized by an unusual structure of sentences, because of which the word belongs to certain parts of speech can be established only by a common sense Chapter 3. The problem of synonymy in the translation of medical texts from English into Russian 3.1 The applications for translation The most serious difficulty for a translator when working with medical texts is the terms. Medical terminology is heterogeneous: one part is represented by words of Greek-Latin origin and represents a stable layer of vocabulary, while the other part is more dynamic due to the fact that some of the terms go out of use, new ones appear, mostly internationalism.The wealth of medical terminology has become one of the reasons for the emergence of synonymous relationships in languages. Often, one term is accompanied by about 3-4 synonyms, one of which is often a borrowing from ancient Greek or Latin languages. The problem of terminological synonymy is one of the most difficult for a translator. A prerequisite for its solution will be not only excellent knowledge of the foreign language from which the translation is carried out, but also basic knowledge in the field of medicine, which will allow a thorough approach to the selection of the desired synonym. Medical translation is a work with highly specialized text, which is characterized by strict style restrictions and a high percentage of terminology. The medical text combines a large number of different genres: an extract from the medical history, an article from the medical encyclopedia, indications for the use of the drug. In translating this type of text, maintaining accuracy is of great importance, since misinterpretation of information can lead to unpredictable consequences in relation to human health. A key difficulty when working with such texts is the translation of terminology. Modern medical terminology is a macrosystem, which consists of several subsystems representing various areas of medical knowledge. Each such industry has its own terminology and at the same time uses general medical terms. M.P. Barsukova notes that the terms of various subsystems interact with each other at the macro-system level. There are several classifications of medical terminology in domestic linguistics, but most often the terms are systematized by structure and origin. Depending on the structure of the terms, simple terms consisting of one word, complex terms of two words that need to be written together or through a hyphen, multicomponent terms of three or more words and phrases are distinguished. By origin, the terms are divided into 4 groups: original Russian concepts, internationalisms of Greek-Latin origin, Western Europeanisms and Latin terms, which are the standard scientific units.Modern linguists highlight a number of common difficulties that a translator encounters when working with almost any genre of medical text. According to N. Rask, one of these difficulties is the terminological synonymy .S.V. Grinev defines synonyms as “words and phrases that, differing in their sound composition, express an identical scientific concept within the framework of a particular microthermal system” . The percentage of synonymy in some areas of medicine ranges from 25% to 40% of the terminology fund . There are two main categories of synonyms that are found in medical texts: equivalent, sound complexes which are motivated by the same principle, and interpretive, with different motivational features. EAT. Solntsev suggests following a number of criteria when choosing the best option from a synonymous series: traditional usage, brevity, terminology, the possibility of derivative terms, the presence of other similar root formations of a similar derivational structure .Let's look at specific examples of the problem of synonymy.This guideline aims to assist clinicians with the initial assessment and appropriate management of suspected ovarian masses in premenopausal women. The electronic multitran dictionary offers the following equivalents when translating the term clinician: clinical physician, medical practitioner, medical consultant, clinician, university professor . Let us turn to the context: since we are talking about the management of the disease, a synonym for a university professor seems to us irrelevant. According to the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language D.N. Ushakova, a clinician - “a doctor working in a clinic engaged not only in medical practice, but also in scientific observations and research” . The expression clinical physician is quite rare in Russian medical texts, the use of the adjective clinical along with a medical specialty, for example, a clinical psychologist, is more common. Explanatory dictionary "Academician" defines the concept of a practicing physician as a specialist who applies his knowledge and skills in practice . Finally, the consultant physician is a specialist with a medical background who works mainly in pharmacies and “helps the patient navigate the variety of medicines and choose the one that is needed. In Russian, there is a significant synonymy of terms, which terminologists consider extremely undesirable, calling into question the very terminology of these units. tonsillite - amygdalite, thrombocyte - plaquette, erythrocyte - hématie - globule rouge; Russian maxillary sinus - maxillary sinus - maxillary cavity - maxillary sinus. In this case, often in both languages there are etymologically matching pairs of synonyms that differ in degree of use. So, fr. récurrent is used no less than récidivant, whereas rus. recurrent is much more common than recurrent. The problem of synonymy in medical terminology, as follows from translation studies, is typical for most languages. Researchers indicate that the standardization of medical terms often meets the resistance of the medical community, and the proposed terms are not always successful from a linguistic point of view .The new international anatomical terminology (“Terminologia Anatomica”) is being introduced slowly, so there is no reason to expect the elimination of unwanted synonyms in the near future . At the same time, the driving force of standardization is not so much the prescription of official bodies as objective requirements related to usage. For example, a requirement 134 Bulletin of MSLU. The derivative ability issue applied to the term leads to a reduction in the use of the globule rouge (erythrocyte) unit, since the formation of an adjective from it is extremely difficult. At the same time, from the noun plaquette (platelet), an adjective (plaquettaire) is easily formed, which, according to our observations, is much more common than the adjective thrombocytaire. Unlike the German language (see above), in French The stylistic differences between synonyms are negligible. A serious translation (or, rather, lexicographic) problem is represented by discrepancies in the classification and nomenclature of various organs and systems of the body. Thus, the jejunum and ileum are combined in French by the term intestin mésentérique, the direct equivalent of which is not available in Russian. In the French medical tradition, loge de Baréty stands out - the so-called pre-tracheal space, rarely allocated by Russian specialists. In bilingual dictionaries , as well as in the new code of international anatomical terminology (“Terminologia Anatomica”), both of these terms are absent. This group of problems can also include discrepancies in the research methodology and in the ways of presenting their results. So, in domestic medical practice, a non-metric parameter, a color / color blood indicator, is actually not familiar to the current generation of French-speaking doctors. In French-speaking countries, another indicator is used - the average content of hemoglobin in an erythrocyte, expressed in picograms for erythrocyte and usually indicated in French texts by the English abbreviation MCH - from mean corpuscular hemoglobin). At the same time, there are different opinions of experts on the question of the permissibility of transferring one unit to another, and the question itself clearly lies outside our competence. Significant differences are observed in the use of eponyms. Thus, the maxillary cavity (named after the English anatomism of N. Gaymor) in French is not indicated by a similar or any other eponym. In Russian texts synonyms are used (purple pigment) angiodermatitis of Favre-Sheikh ocher dermatitis, while in French texts the term “dermite ocre” is almost always used: the eponym angiodermite de Favre et Chaix is practically not used (despite the French origin of doctors, in honor of which was given the name). It should be noted that in medical English texts, the unit Favre-Chaix angiodermatitis is relatively consumptive. At the same time, in Russian, the analogy of the eponym incidence de Blondeau (“Blondo's projection” is a special position of the head with an x-ray that allows you to best visualize the paranasal sinuses) is the “projection according to Waters”. French sources recognize the combination of incidence de Waters as synonym incidence de Blondeau, but the eponym containing the name of the French doctor is much more common. Thus, the use of eponyms in medical texts is subject to a significant influence of national specificity and represents (taking into account the absence of many eponyms in bilingual dictionaries) a significant translation problem. Speaking in this connection of the Russian-French correspondences, we pay attention to the fact that the eponyms maladie de Bechterew (ankylosing spondylitis, ankylosing spondylitis) and épilepsie de Kojevnikoff (Kozhevnikovsky epilepsy, partial cortical epilepsy) are used in French, Botkin, not available (cf. Russian Botkin's disease), although the Latin term morbus Botkini is internationally used. Even within this type of translation, there are many variations of work. Most often, translators receive orders for medical translation: medical certificates; medical records; documentation for medical equipment (instructions, etc.); presentations; study guides / reference books; drug annotations; survey results; drug test reports, etc. Since medicine does not stand still, today more and more often order medical articles with translation. Moreover, this type of work requires not only compliance with the requirements for medical translation, but also a commitment to the scientific and journalistic style. In addition, this type of translation can also be divided into theoretical, practical (medical) and pharmaceutical. Each of these types of orders has its own specifics and takes a different time. At the same time, accuracy and writing style are important. The latter, for example, for reference and article will be very different. |