Учебник Кобрина. Грамматика. Синтаксис.1999. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических институтов и университетов по специальности 2103 "Иностранные языки". Спб., Союз, 1999. 496 с
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The position of attributes§ 86. The position of an attribute depends on the following: 1. The morphological nature of the attribute. Adjectives, participles, gerunds, nouns in the common and the possessive cases, pronouns, ordinal numerals, and quotation nouns generally premodify the headword. He was a little man, with a thin voice. Val had just changed out of riding clothes and was on his way to the party. The apple trees were in blossom. It’s not always easy to understand a child’s language. The third attempt gave no result. His eyes travelled over the landscape at their feet. Adverbs, statives, cardinal numerals and infinitives are generally postmodifying attributes. Participles II, statives, and adjectives of verbal origin used as attributes also tend to occupy the position after the headword. The people involved were reported to the police. When we build cities we think about generations unborn. Adjectives ending in -able, -ible are mostly postpositive as attributes. They often follow a headword preceded by only or a similar word with a limiting meaning. The only person visible was the policeman (who could be seen). The only way of escaping imaginable was through the window (which could be imagined). 2. Тhe extension of the attribute. Non-detached attributes are postmodifying when expressed by extended phrases or complexes. The influence of extension can be illustrated by the following pairs of examples:
Here are some more examples: They passed the bodies of British soldiers killed that night. It was a little log house with whitewashed walls. He held a letter in his hands, a letter from his mother. He appeared to be a small man of about fifty. They chose a way longer than the other. 3. The morphological nature of the headword. Such words as demonstrative or indefinite pronouns and numerals cannot have an attribute in preposition. Those coming first occupied the best seats. Most of their time animals spend in search of something eatable. There is nothing interesting in this book. All present were disgusted by his behaviour. Note 1: Non-detached postmodifying attributes are found in traditional phrases borrowed from French or Latin, such as blood royal, time immemorial, the second person plural, heir apparent (heir presumptive). Lords spiritual, Lords temporal. Note 2: There are cases when the headword is embedded between parts of the attribute, as in: I was told that you were the best man available (the best available man). Types of connection between an attribute and its headword§ 87. From the point of view of their connection with the headword and other parts of the sentence, attributes may be divided into nondetached (close) and detached (loose) ones. Non-detached attributes § 88. Non-detached attributes form one sense group with their headword and are not separated from it by commas. They generally adjoin the headword, either premodifying, postmodifying, or embedding it, and are connected with other parts of the sentence only through the headword. Non-detached premodifying attributes may be unextended, consisting of one word only, or form chains of homogeneous attributes with identical reference, as in: a nice girl, a pretty house; crimson, white, and yellow flowers. Attributes with identical reference (crimson flowers, white flowers, and yellow flowers - crimson, white, and yellow flowers) are usually interchangeable (yellow, white, and crimson flowers) and are set off by commas (crimson, white, yellow flowers) or joined by a conjunction as they are in the example given above. Attributes may form a string with different reference, that is, those of them which are closer to the noun form one whole with subsequent words: her usual (good temper); a clever (young man) (compare with crimson, white, yellow flowers); a large black and white (hunting dog). In the word-group a large black and white hunting dog the adjective large refers to black and white hunting dog, black and white, refers to hunting dog, and hunting refers to dog. This relation of attributes embedded inside a string of them requires a fixed order and no comma is used to separate them. The phrase an old lady’s hat allows of two possible interpretations: (An old lady)’s hat and an old (lady’s hat). If there are relations other than attributive within the string of premodifying words, the whole string functions as one attribute. In this case they are usually hyphenated, as in: most deeply-felt emotions; too-new shoes, a word-for-word translation, a brass-coffee-pot-like thing (a thing looking like a brass coffee-pot); a dirty-collar, unbrushed-coat man (a man with a dirty collar and in an unbrushed coat). One of the characteristic features of English, especially in academic and newspaper style is a marked tendency to form long strings of phrasal attributes (usually called compositional phrases), which express in a compressed form the content of a clause or sentence and which can be easily turned into one, if necessary form words are added (prepositions, link verbs, etc.) and the morphological changes are introduced, as in: Fish-breeding plants. (Plants that breed fish.) Efficient salt-producing mines. (Mines that produce salt efficiently.) The uranium-supply industry. (Industry that supplies uranium to...) The last decade’s scarcity of hands in the country. (In the last decade hands were scarce in the country.) The long-looked-for hours. (The hours which were looked for long.) Detached attributes § 89. A detached attribute is only loosely connected with its headword and is often optional from the point of view of structure, although very important semantically. It forms a separate sense group in speech and is accordingly separated by commas in writing. A detached attribute may be placed in preposition, post-position, or often at some distance from the headword. Carrie looked about her, very much disturbed and quite sure that she did not want to work here. Unlike non-detached attributes, a detached attribute may modify personal and relative pronouns. Big and strong, he impressed us greatly. Very often a detached attribute refers not only to the headword, but also to another part of the sentence, thus forming a double connection. For example, a detached attribute referring both to the subject of the sentence and to the predicate may have in addition to its attributive meaning some adverbial shade of meaning, such as conditional, causal, or concessive. And for a moment I hesitated, unable to start talking (as I was unable to start talking). Familiar with these details, Michael paid them little attention (because he was familiar with these details). The apposition§ 90. An apposition is a part of the sentence expressed by a noun or nominal phrase and referring to another noun or nominal phrase (the headword), or sometimes to a clause. The apposition may give another designation to, or description of, the person or non-person, or else put it in a certain class of persons or non-persons. In the latter case it is similar to an attribute, as it characterizes the person or non-person denoted by the headword. Beyond the villa, a strange-looking building, began the forest. He had remembered her at once, for he always admired her, a very pretty creature. He knows about everything - a man of the world. The whole thing was indescribable - a terrific spectacle, a stupendous symphony of sound. Like the attribute, the apposition may be in preposition or postposition. However, unlike the attribute, which is always subordinated to its headword and is usually connected with other parts in the sentence only through it, words in apposition are, at least syntactically, coordinated parts, that is, both the headword and the apposition are constituents of the same level in the sentence. This may be illustrated by two possible types of transformation of sentences with words in apposition.
However, an apposition can rarely replace the headword in the sentence. Substitution is possible only if the apposition meets the following conditions: 1. It denotes the same person or non-person as the headword. Winterbourne was back on the Somme, that incredible desert, pursuing the retreating enemy. If it puts the person or non-person in a certain class of persons or nonpersons, no substitution is possible. Thus the sentence Mr Smith, a local doctor, was known to everybody cannot be transformed into the sentence *A local doctor was known to everybody. 2. It is expressed by words of the same morphological class as its headword. Otherwise the apposition may be unacceptable in the structure of the sentence because of its grammatical or lexical meaning. This can be illustrated by the sentence: She was seized by a gust of curiosity to see that wife of his, which does not allow the substitution of the apposition for the headword - She was seized by a gust of to see that wife of his. 3. It follows the headword immediately and has no dependent words which may hinder substitution. Otherwise, the dependent words may block the connection and make the apposition unacceptable in the structure of the sentence. Thus, the sentence John, at that time a student, wrote several articles on architecture cannot be transformed into At that lime a student wrote several articles on architecture, for it changes the meaning of the sentence altogether. The sentences discussed above show the peculiarity of the appositive relation: although it resembles coordination syntactically (in that the headword and the apposition are constituents of the same level within the sentence), communicatively they are not of the same rank. Appositions may be joined by a coordinating conjunction, or follow one another asyndetically. In both cases appositions refer directly to the headword. Dr and Mrs Macphail were left alone. A man of action and a born leader, now forced into a state of thought, he was unhappy. A daughter of poor but honest parents, I have no reason to be ashamed of my origins. Types of connection between an apposition and its headword§ 91. From the point of view of their relation to the headword, appositions, like attributes, are subdivided into non-detached (close) and detached (loose) ones. Non-detached appositions § 92. Non-detached appositions form one sense group with their headword and very often enter into such close relation with it that the two words form one whole. This is especially true in the case of titles, military ranks, professions, kinship terms, geographical denotations, etc., used as apposition. Sir Peter, Mr Brown, Doctor Watson, Colonel Davidson, Uncle Podger, Mount Everest, the River Thames. Being very closely connected with each other such appositions and their headwords may be treated as indivisible word-groups.* * See also § 36 item 6. Detached appositions § 93. Detached, or loose appositions form separate sense groups and are wider in their meaning than close appositions: they may give identification, explanation, etc., especially when referring to pronouns. They may follow the headword immediately or be separated from it. He actually envied Jolyon the reputation of succeeding where he, Soames, had failed. Cooper was three inches taller than Mr Warburton, a strong, muscular young man. An apposition may also refer to a clause or a sentence, usually as an explanatory remark. The night was muggy, a bit drizzly, windless, and very dark - the ideal conditions for a gas bombardment. The adverbial modifier§ 94. The adverbial modifier (or the adverbial) is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies another part of the sentence expressed either by a verb (in a finite or non-finite form), or an adjective, or a stative, or an adverb. In case it modifies a verb the adverbial characterizes the action or process expressed by tlie verb and denotes its quality, quantity, or the whole situation. The adverbial modifier may refer to: a) The predicate-verb or to a verbal phrase. J     ohn spoke in a whisper. B  owen read the telegram aloud .  b ) The whole of the sentence, especially if placed at the beginning of the sentence.I n the evening they gathered together again.  If an adverbial modifies a non-finite form, it becomes part of a gerundial, participial, or infinitive phrase or construction. Felicity fell to the ground and after lying still for a moment began to crawl forward. Scobie watched the bearers go slowly up the hill, their bare feet very gently flapping the ground. Adverbials modifying adjectives, statives and adverbs usually denote degree or quantity. These adverbials modify: a) Adjectives in their attributive or predicative function. I t was a very long story. T he story was extremely long. H e is six feet tall. b) Statives in their predicative function. I am quite aware of the situation. c) Adverbs in their main function as an adverbial. Y ou speak English rather fluently. Obligatory and non-obligatory adverbial modifiers§ 95. Adverbials are structurally more independent of the verb than objects. Their use is often optional. However, when introduced into the sentence, adverbials are of great communicative value. Thus in the sentence Professor Brown is leaving for London to-morrow, both adverbials for London and to-morrow give important pieces of information, although grammatically the sentence Professor Brown is leaving is complete. Adverbials are obligatory when the sentence structure demands one or when their absence changes the meaning of the verb. This is the case: a) After the verbs to behave, to act, to treat. He behaved bravely. *He behaved has no sense. The Murdstones treated David cruelly. - Мердстоны жестоко обращались с Давидом. The doctor treated David - доктор лечил Давида. b) After statal and durative verbs, such as to live, to dwell, to wait, to last, to weigh. John lives in London. (John lives has a different meaning: ‘he exists’, ‘he is alive’.) The lecture lasted two hours. c) After transitive verbs implying direction, such as to put, to take, to send. Put the book on the shelf. Take these letters to the post-office. d) After intransitive verbs of motion and position in space, such as to come, to go, to arrive, to return, to step, to sit, to lie, to stand. Brett went to the dressing-room. Robert was standing at the window. The absolute use of the above verbs, that is without adverbials, is possible if the speaker is interested in the process itself or if the use of an adverbial is unnecessary because of the situation. He was too weak to stand. Everybody has come. e) When an adverbial influences the meaning of a verb form . I am going to the library to-morrow, (‘am going’ denotes intention, not an action). f) When its absence changes the measing of the rest of the sentence. Can you speak English without making mistakes? I’ve never been there since my childhood. Non-obligatory adverbials are those which are not necessary for the structure of the sentence. They neither influence the meaning of the verb form, nor change the structure or the meaning of the rest of the sentence, no matter how important they are from the communicative viewpoint. She left the room without saying a word. Before speaking he pressed the bell at his side. Detached adverbial modifiers§ 96. Detached adverbials being more loosely related to the modified parts of the sentence than non-detached adverbials are never obligatory. They are separated from the rest of the sentence by intonation in speaking and by commas in writing. Detachment of adverbials may be caused by various factors, the most important of which are their meaning, the form of expression, their extension, their position in the sentence, or the speaker’s desire for emphasis. Owing to their structure and meaning, absolute constructions are nearly always detached: Wesley saw the boat, its decks deserted. Participial phrases as adverbials also tend to be detached. She then returned to her place, not having spoken another word. Adverbials are detached when they are placed m an unusual position, as in the following examples: Like him, she saw danger in it. Randall, for all his tiresomeness and badness, had always been her Randall. Any adverbial may be detached if the speaker wishes to emphasize its meaning. “He was her father,” said Frances Wilmot, gravely. Ways of expressing adverbial modifiers§ 97. Adverbials are grouped according to their structure (ways of expression) and their meaning. There is no one-to-one correspondence between these two groupings, though we may observe certain tendencies in the ways of expressing this or that kind of adverbial modifier. An adverbial modifier may be expressed by: 1. An adverb (sometimes preceded by a preposition). Jane sings beautifully. George is always busy. The ship sailed east. 2. An adverbial phrase, with an adverb as headword. We met ten years ago and parted two years later. They worked till late at night. 3. A noun, pronoun or numeral preceded by a preposition or prepositional nominal phrase. A dim light was burning in the archway under the inner gate. Beyond it Mr Watson could see the outer gate. Behind him he could hear Kirstie sobbing. We met in 1975. Classes begin on the first of September. 4. A noun without a preposition or a non-prepositional noun phrase, the latter usually containing such words as this, that, every, last, next. Wait a minute! Come this way, please. We meet every day. 5. A non-finite verb form: a) a gerund or a gerundial phrase. Remember to open the window before doing your morning exercises. One day, on returning to his hotel, he found a note in his room. b) an infinitive or an infinitive phrase. The problem is too difficult to solve. We’ve come here to ask you a favour. c) a participle or a participial phrase. Sighing, Betty returned to the kitchen. Pounding the house, they entered a quiet, walled garden. 6. A predicative complex: a) a gerundial construction. Are you angry because of my being late? b) a for-to-infinitive construction. The problem is too difficult for a child to solve. c) a non-prepositional or prepositional absolute construction. The meal over, they went to the fuel store. There having been no rain, the earth was dry. Earphones on, Fred sat alone in Ivor’s room. I don’t want to quarrel with the children listening. 7. An adjective, an adverb, a participle, a noun, a prepositional phrase, an infinitive, an infinitive or participial phrase introduced by a conjunction. I’ll come earlier if necessary. Her conduct when there was most unaccountable. When argued with, Ida had one answer. As a little girl she used to make daisy-chains. I began to wonder whether he'd manage to give an interview while still in his right mind. He quickly did this, and while doing it dropped his umbrella. As if to bring matters to a focus, Tess’s father was heard approaching at that moment. 8. A Clause (as part of a complex sentence). Won’t you stay till the rain stops? We stayed at home because it rained. Structural classification of the adverbial modifier§ 98. From the point of view of its structure the adverbial modifier, may be simple, phrasal, complex, clausal. We started early. We started at five in the morning. John sat with his elbows on the table and his hands clasped. When the cat is away, the mice will play. Semantic characteristics of the adverbial modifier§ 99. Semantically adverbials denote place, time, manner, cause, purpose, result, condition, concession, attendant circumstances, comparison, degree, measure, exception, thus forming semantic classes, such as adverbials of place, time, etc. The semantic class of an adverbial may be identified directly (absolutely) or indirectly (relatively). It is identified directly by lexical meaning of the word or phrase used as an adverbial, as in: I saw him yesterday. (time) She spoke in a loud voice. (manner) In other cases the semantic type is identified relatively, that is, only through the relationship of the adverbial to the modified part of the sentence, as is often the case with participles, infinitives, and some prepositional phrases. Thus the phrase with fear functions as an adverbial of manner in the sentence She spoke with fear and as an adverbial of reason in the sentence She shook with fear. The phrase Walking along the track to Buckmaster’s denotes motion in some direction, but in the sentence Walking along the track towards Buckmaster’s Bowen burst into song it acquires temporal meaning and serves as an adverbial of time. In the majority of cases, an identifying question may help to distinguish between adverbial modifiers from the semantic point of view. When? suggests time, where? - place, in what case? - condition, etc. However, it is not always possible to find an identifying question for every adverbial. Sometimes one and the same question word may correspond to different kinds of adverbials. Thus how? may suggest manner, comparison and degree. On the other hand such adverbials as those of result and attendant circumstances have no corresponding question words. Semantic classes of adverbial modifiersThe adverbial of place § 100. This adverbial expresses: a) Place proper. John was born in Australia, but lives in England. b) Direction or destination. He moved to Australia in 1975. c) Distance. He lives far from his parents. The identifying questions are where? for place proper, where to? where from? - for direction, where? how far? - for distance. The adverbial of time § 101. The adverbial of time has four variations: a) The adverbial of time proper denotes the time of some event. It may be expressed in almost all the ways enumerated in § 97. We shall meet tomorrow. Ten days later she returned. When angry count a hundred. b) The adverbial of frequency indicates how often the event denoted by the predicate takes place. It is mostly placed before the notional part of the predicate (if it is expressed by an adverb). I am always careful. We often see each other. Does he ever visit museums? - Once in a blue moon. He calls me from time to time. We have a get-together every year. Adverbials of frequency are expressed by adverbs and adverbial phrases. c) The adverbial of duration indicates the period of time during which some event takes place. They are often expressed by prepositional phrases with prepositions for, during, since, till, until. The preposition since denotes the starting point and the preposition till/until - the final point of some period. Have you been there long? - A couple of hours. They want to rest (for) a day or two. The sun gives us light during the day. We are to wait till the end of the exam. This has been going on since our arrival. He lived to be ninety. Note: The preposition for is optional after the verbs of duration. d) The adverbial of time relationship presents the idea of time as related to some other event in time. This adverbial is expressed by such adverbs as still, yet, already, at last, before, after, by a noun, a gerund, or a prepositional phrase with the prepositions by, before, after. Thus the sentence It was still raining implies that it had been raining for some time before. He hasn’t given his consent yet means that up to now we do not know anything about his consent. The train has left already means that it has left by this time. He graduated at last suggests after a long time or delay. Here are some other examples of adverbial of time relationship: Promise to come back by the end of the week. We’ll see about it after classes. Before answering the Boss stepped back to the chair and sank into it. The same relationship can be seen in sentences with participial phrases, as in: Arthur, having read the letter twice, put it in an envelope. (After he had read the letter twice...) The adverbial of manner § 102. The adverbial of manner characterizes the action of the verb by indicating the way it is performed or by what means it is achieved. The identifying questions are how? in what way? by what means? Adverbials of manner are mainly expressed by adverbs or prepositional phrases (including gerundial phrases) introduced by the prepositions with, without, by, by means of, or with the help of, the latter three suggesting means. Hooper danced badly, but energetically. She walked with short quick steps. You begin learning a language by listening to the new sounds. Thoughts are expressed by means of (with the help of) words. Adverbials of manner may also be expressed by participial phrases and absolute constructions. I looked up again and saw that coming from the door behind Palmer, she had entered the room. She said the last words with a voice lowered. Some adverbials of manner border on the instrumental object in cases like the following: He opened the tin with a knife. The identifying questions are either How did he open the tin? or What did he open the tin with? The adverbial of cause (reason) § 103. The identifying questions, of this adverbial are why? for what reason? because of what? due to what? Adverbials of reason are expressed by prepositional nominal phrases, participial and infinitive phrases, sometimes by absolute constructions. Most prepositions of reason are composite and the causal meaning of the phrase, and thus of the adverbial modifier, is due to the meaning of the preposition, for example, because of, due to, owing to, on account of, for the reason of, thanks to and some others. You mean you’ve failed because of me? The accident happened owing to bad driving. Thanks to my parents I got a decent education. A number of polysemantic prepositions acquire causal meaning when combined with nouns denoting a psychological or physical state. She couldn’t speak for happiness (anger, fear, joy). She cried out of fear (anger). She did it out of pity (spite). Many people have come here from curiosity. He was trembling with hatred. Participial phrases and nominative absolute constructions are freely used as adverbials of reason, most often with the verb to be and verbs of feeling, wish, or mental perception. I was happy just being with him. Wanting a cigarette, I took out my case. There being nothing else to do, we went home. The adverbial of purpose § 104. This adverbial answers the identifying questions what for? for what purpose? It is most frequently expressed by an infinitive, an infinitive phrase or complex. Jane has come to help us. I’ve repeated my words for you to remember them. The meaning of purpose may be emphasized by the composite prepositions in order or so as, which are never used before an infinitive complex. We must go early in order not to be late. We hurried so as not to be late. The adverbial of purpose may also be expressed by a noun, a prepositional phrase, nominal or gerundial, introduced by the preposition for. We reserved this table for lunch. We use the thermometer for measuring temperature. After the imperative of the verbs to go and to come another imperative is preferable to the infinitive, as in: Go and help him. (Not Go to help him.) Come and wash up. (Not Come to wash up.) The use is optional for the verb to see. Come to see me, or Come and see me. Go to see him, or Go and see him. The adverbial of result (consequence) § 105. The adverbial of result has no identifying questions. It refers to an adjective, a noun with qualitative meaning, or an adverb accompanied by an adverb of degree, such as too, enough, sufficiently, so... (as). The adverbial of result is expressed by an infinitive, an infinitive phrase, or complex. It is too cold to go out. The lecturer spoke slowly enough for us to take down everything he said. He was fool enough to believe it. John was so fortunate as to get the first prize. He felt he was enough of a citizen of the world not to mind it. The adverbial of degree too signals a negative result, enough suggests the necessary amount of quality to perform the action. The correlative phrase so... as implies a realized action, unlike the phrase so as before adverbials of purpose suggesting a hypothetical event. Compare these sentences: John was so fortunate as to get the first prize (and he got it) - result. John trained hours so as to get the first prize for boating (we do not know whether he has got it or not) – purpose. The adverbial of condition § 106. The identifying questions are in what case? or on what condition? The adverbial of condition is generally expressed by a noun or a pronoun, or by a prepositional phrase (nominal or sometimes gerundial) with the prepositions but for, except for, without. But for you I wouldn’t be here at all. Except for the sound of his breathing I wouldn’t have known he was there. Without faith there can be no cure. This adverbial is sometimes expressed by a participle or an adjective with the conjunctions if or unless. Jane won’t sing unless asked to. We’ll come earlier if necessary. Less frequently it is an infinitive or a participle. I would have done better to have followed my first thought. Skilfully managed, conversation with him might prove amusing. The adverbial of concession § 107. This adverbial expresses some idea that contradicts what is stated in the modified part of the sentence. Thus in its meaning it is opposite to the adverbial of reason. The identifying question is in spite of what? The adverbial of concession is expressed by a prepositional phrase introduced by in spite of, despite, for all, with all and phrases introduced by the conjunction though. In spite of his anger John listened to me attentively. Cleary, for all his reputation, was already out of date. With all his faults, I like him. Though a bad painter, he had a delicate feeling for art. Note: The conjunction if introduces concessive adverbials in cases like the following: Your remark is witty, if rather cruel (...хотя и несколько жестокое). Adverbials of attendant circumstances and subsequent events § 108. These adverbials have no identifying questions. The adverbial of attendant circumstances expresses some fact that accompanies the event presented by the modified part of the sentence. This adverbial may be expressed by a gerundial phrase, a participial phrase, any kind of absolute construction, and rather rarely by an infinitive phrase. We walked three miles without meeting anyone (and did not meet anyone) “No,” said Gabriel, turning to his wife (and turned to his wife) I dropped my fists and walked away, “Scout’s a coward” ringing in my ears. In the study with the door closed, he stood before the window, smoking his pipe. The adverbial of subsequent events points out an event following the event presented in the modified part of the sentence. This adverbial is most frequently expressed by an infinitive, or sometimes by a participle. He woke up to see that it was daylight. They said something to her, receiving no answer. The adverbial of comparison § 109. This adverbial is introduced by the conjunctions than, as, as if, as though or the preposition like. The adverbial with than is preceded by the comparative of the adverb or the adjective it modifies, the adverbial with as - by the correlative adverbs as or so: A mountain is higher than a hill. The boy is now as tall as his father. Tom is not so tall as his brother. Tom speaks French as fluently as a born Frenchman. Tom speaks French like a Frenchman. The difference between the use of like and as is important. Ann talked to us like a teacher means that Ann is not a teacher, whereas the sentence Ann talked to us as a teacher implies that she is a teacher and in talking to us her professional manner was apparent. The conjunctions as if and as though give the comparison a modal shade of meaning: They precede a participle, an infinitive, or a prepositional phrase, as in: As if obeying him, I turned and stared into his face. He prospered greatly, almost as though against his will. The adverbial of degree § 110. This adverbial modifies various parts of the sentence expressed by verbs, adjectives, adverbs and statives, characterizing actions, states and quality from the viewpoint of their intensity. The identifying questions being how much? to what extent? Adverbials of degree are expressed mainly by adverbs and by prepositional phrases with the preposition to. The story is extremely long. All was planned to the split second. Now you may read to your hearts content. Sometimes nouns can be modified by an adverbial of degree, as in: You are quite a man, my boy. The adverbial of measure § 111. This adverbial is expressed by a noun denoting a unit of measure (length, time, weight, money, temperature). It is used after statal verbs denoting processes, states, or characteristics allowing measurement, such as to measure, to last, to wait, to sleep, to walk, to run, to weigh, to cost. Nouns as adverbials of measure are preceded by numerals or the indefinite article in its, numerical function. The room measures 30 feet across. We walked (for) five miles. The box weighs a ton. The temperature went down ten degrees below zero. The adverbial of exception § 112. This adverbial is expressed by nouns or prepositional phrases introduced by the prepositions but, except, save, but for, except for, save for, apart from, aside from, with the exclusion of. I looked everywhere except in the bedroom. Your English is decent apart from spelling. The road was empty except for a few cars. The prepositions save and save for are more formal and occur in writing, as in: These men were in fact quite civil save during certain weeks of autumn and winter. Independent elements of the sentence§ 113. Independent elements of the sentence, as the term implies, generally are not grammatically dependent on any particular part of the sentence, but as a rule refer to the sentence as a whole. Only occasionally they may refer to a separate part of the sentence. The independent element may consist of a word or a phrase. Its position is more free than that of any other parts of the sentence and accordingly it may occur in different positions in the sentence. There are two groups of independent elements: I. Direct address. A direct address is the name of a person (or occasionally a non-person) to whom the rest of the sentence is addressed. It may be emotionally charged or neutral, but semantically it does not influence the sentence. I’m sorry, Major, we had an arrangement. Jenny, darling, don’t say such things. How’s the world, good friend? II. Parenthesis. As to its meaning the parenthesis may be of several types: a) It may express the speaker’s attitude to the relation between what is expressed in the sentence and reality (perhaps, maybe, certainly, of course, evidently, oh, Goodness Gracious, etc.). Undoubtedly you are both excellent engineers. Surely he had too wide a mouth. The cottages were, in fact, boxlike and rather towny. Oh, we can’t go. b) It may connect the sentence it belongs to with the preceding or the following one expressing different relations (first, firstly, secondly, finally, after all, moreover, besides, by the way, on the contrary, that is (i.e.), for example (eg), etc.). I was listening and thinking. Besides, I wanted to tell you something. After all, he'd only been doing his duty. Finally the whole party started walking. c) It may specify that which is said in the sentence or express a comment (according to my taste, in my opinion, to tell the truth, in other words, as is known, by the way, etc.). According to your theory, we’re in a mighty soulful era. To tell you the truth, the total was more than a thousand francs. As a rule a parenthesis refers to the sentence (or clause) as a whole. Frankly speaking, he had been amazed at his failure. This streak of light was, in all likelihood, a gleam from a lantern. Sometimes, however, a parenthesis refers only to, a secondary part of the sentence. Miss Barlett might reveal unknown depths of strangeness, though not, perhaps, of meaning. As to its morphological nature, a parenthesis can be expressed by: 1. A modal word: perhaps, no doubt, indeed, certainty, in fact, evidently, maybe, etc. Perhaps they would go soon. 2. An interjection: oh, ah, eh, dear me, by God, Good heavens, etc. You like the outfit, eh? Dear me, I had no idea you were such a determined character. 3. A conjunct (that is, an adverb combining the function of a parenthesis with that of a connector): finally, anyway, consequently, besides, moreover, otherwise, etc. But there’s no chance here. Besides, he couldn’t make two ends meet on the job. 4. A prepositional phrase: in my opinion, in short, by the way, onthe other hand, on thecontrary, at least, to one's surprise, etc. In my opinion you are wrong. You can’t make me! In short, I won’t do it. 5. An infinitive phrase: to tell the truth, to be sure, to begin with, to do smb justice, etc. That was, so to speak, another gift for you. To do that lady justice, Miss Spencer bore the ordeal very well. 6. A participial phrase: frankly speaking, strictly speaking, generally speaking, etc. Generally speaking I think you’re right. 7. A clause (see the item on parenthetical clauses). As it was, Nell departed with surprising docility. |