A Grammar of the English Language. Грамматика английского языка. A grammar of the english language
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Partridge’s, “I fit you beautifully.” (Dreiser) The Absolute Genitive may be introduced by the preposition of. She is a relation of the Colonel’s. (Austen) Chapter II THE ARTICLE § 1. General notion. The article is a structural part of speech used with nouns. There are two articles in Modern English: the indefinite article and the definite article. The indefinite article has the forms a and an. The form a is used before words beginning with a consonant sound (a book, a pen, a student). The form an is used before words beginning with a vowel sound (an opera, an apple, an hour). The article is pronounced [q], [qn]; when stressed it is pronounced [eI], [xn]. The definite article has one graphic form the, which is pronounced in two ways: [DJ]before a vowel sound [DJ xpl] and [Dq] before a consonant sound [Dq pen]. The indefinite article has developed from the Old English numeral an (one), and as a result of its origin it is used only with nouns in the singular. The definite article has developed from the Old English demonstrative pronoun se and in some cases it has preserved this demonstrative meaning in Modern English. The use of the indefinite article implies that the object is presented as belonging to a class. The use of the definite article shows that a particular object is meant. The absence of articles with class nouns in the plural, with abstract nouns and nouns of material has grammatical significance: it shows that the nouns are used in a general sense. With nouns in the plural some is often used. Some, as well as the absence of articles with class nouns in the plural, is the equivalent of the indefinite article in the singular. Some is used when the speaker wants to emphasize the idea of number. Some is also used with nouns of material if the idea of quantity is implied. Some has the meaning of ‘several’ with class nouns and ‘a little’ with nouns of material. Some is hardly ever translated into Russian. USE OF ARTICLES WITH COMMON NOUNS CLASS NOUNS § 2. The use of the indefinite article with class nouns. Class nouns are used with the indefinite article: 1. When the speaker presents the object expressed by the noun as belonging to a certain class. In this case the indefinite article has the meaning of ‘какой-нибудь, какой-то, один’ (in the meaning of ‘некий’). She has a watch of her own. On the green surface of the lake a little boat, with white wings faintly fluttering, rocked in the dewy breeze. (Voynich) Close beside them grew a rose-bush covered with scarlet hips. (Voynich) In the plural no article is used in this case. If the idea of number is implied the noun is preceded by the pronoun some. I liked the room because there were flowers in it. “I have brought you some flowers...” “I hate to wear flowers.” (Voynich) 2. With a predicative noun, when the speaker states that the object denoted by the noun belongs to a certain class. Miss Sharp’s father was an artist. (Thackeray) “Is your brother an agreeable man, Peggotty?” “Oh, what an agreeable man he is!” (Dickens) She works as a chemist. (Cronin) In the plural neither the article nor the pronoun some is used. They are good children, no doubt. (E. Bronte) “...they were business men when I was in the nursery.” (Voynich) After the conjunction as a predicative noun is often used without an article. She was engaged as governess. 3. When the noun is used in a general sense. What is said of one representative of a class can be applied to all the representatives of the class. The article has the meaning of ‘every’. A drowning man catches at a straw. In the plural neither the article nor the pronoun some is used. Real friends should have everything in common. (Wilde) 4. There are cases when the indefinite article preserves its old original meaning of ‘one’. A stitch in time saves nine. He had hardly spoken a word since they left Riccardo’s door... (Voynich) This meaning is generally found with: (a) nouns denoting time, measure and weight. A week or two passed. (Ch. Bronte) “I’ll overtake you in a minute,” said Godfrey. (Eliot) (b) the numerals hundred, thousand, million and the nouns dozen, score. He seems to have half a dozen languages at his finger-tips. (Voynich) With nouns in the plural some is used. Oliver’s sobs checked his utterance for some minutes. (Dickens) § 3. The use of the definite article with class nouns. Class nouns are used with the definite article: 1. When the noun denotes an object or objects which the speaker singles out from all the objects of a given class. An object is singled out in the following cases: (a) when the speaker and the hearer know what particular object is meant. No special indication is necessary. How did you like the play? I have got the magazine. У меня есть этот журнал (журнал у меня). N о t e. — It should be borne in mind that there is a difference between knowing what object is spoken about and knowing the object itself. I. A. I do not care to speak to the girl. 1 have never seen her. Won’t you speak to her? B. But I do not know the girl either. II. A. Who told you about it? B. A girl. A. What girl? B. My sister. In the first dialogue the speaker and the hearer do not know the person at all, but they know whom they mean, so the definite article is used. In the second the speaker knows the person, but he presents her to the hearer merely as one of a class, so the indefinite article is used. (b) when the speaker uses an attribute pointing out a particular object. This is the house that Jack built. (For detailed treatment see § 4.) (c) when the situation itself makes the object definite. The wedding looked dismal. The bride was too old and the bridegroom was too young. (Dickens) When an object is singled out from all the objects of a given class the definite article retains its demonstrative meaning, and the English use the definite article much oftener than the demonstrative pronouns this or that. Thus the Russian sentence Дайтемнеэтукнигуshould be rendered in English by Let me have the book. As a rule the definite article is not translated into Russian. However, there are cases when it must be rendered by этот. You told me before you wished to be a governess; but, my dear, if you remember, I did not encourage the idea. (Ch. Bronte) ...я не одобрила эту мысль. 2. When the noun denotes a thing unique (the sun, the moon, the universe) or a class. The sun was getting warmer. (Abrahams) The bourgeoisie is cowardly. (London) The indefinite article can be used when we mean a certain aspect in which the sun, moon and sky appear to us, a certain state of the sun, the moon, the sky. In this case an attribute is used. A pearl-white moon smiles through the green trees. (Ch. Bronte) 3. With nouns used in a generic sense. A noun used in a generic sense denotes a genus taken as a whole, a thing taken as a type, a genre. The tiger has always had the reputation of being a man-eater. The telephone was invented in the 19th century. The tragedy and the comedy first appeared in Greece. When the noun man is used in a generic sense no article is used. Silas felt that his trust in man had been cruelly destroyed. (Eliot) When the noun woman is used in a generic sense it is used with the definite article or occasionally without an article. He had always been interested, in that mysterious being — the woman. (Bennett) Woman is man’s helpmate. A noun used in a generic sense should not be confused with a noun used in a general sense. A noun used in a general sense denotes an object regarded as an individual representative of a class. A detective story helps to while away the time. (Every or any detective story is meant here.) A noun in a generic sense denotes the whole class. Conan Doyle is a master of the detective story. (The detective story is regarded here as a certain genre.) ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE USE OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE The definite article is used: (1) with nouns modified by adjectives in the superlative degree. Miss Tox had the softest voice that ever was heard. (Dickens) (2) with nouns in word-groups the first component of which is some, many, none, most and the second a noun with the preposition of. Most of the gentlemen looked both angry and uncomfortable. (Voynich) (3) with nouns modified by the pronoun same and the adjectives wrong (не тот), right (тот), very (именно тот, тот самый). То all invitations he replied with the same courteous and positive refusal. (Voynich) I do wish we had not opened the door of the wrong room. (Jerome) “Ah! Mr. Burton!” exclaimed the Director, “the very person I wanted.” (Voynich) «...именно тот (как раз тот) человек, который мне нужен». Signora Grassini hated Gemma for the very expression of her face. Синьора Грассини ненавидела Джемму за самое выражение ее лица. (4) with substantivized adjectives and participles. Only the simple and the humble were abroad at that early hour. (Bennett) Grey conveyed some of his love of the beautiful to Cowperwood. (Dreiser) The listeners noted something beyond the usual in his voice. (Galsworthy) N o t e. — With countable abstract nouns the use of the articles is the same as with class nouns. It is a capital idea if only one could carry it out. (Voynich) § 4. The use of articles with class nouns modified by attributes. The definite article is used when a noun is modified by an attribute which shows that a particular object is meant, i. e. by an attribute which might be called a particularizing attribute. A particularizing attribute is used to single out an object from all the objects of the class, to point out one particular object or group of objects. The use of a particularizing attribute implies the idea of ‘тот, который’; ‘именно тот, этот’. A particularizing attribute can be expressed by an of-phrase or an attributive clause. It is always used in post-position. He knocked at the door of a very neat house. (Marryat) The letters that I have here have come to me quite by accident. (Dreiser) A particularizing attribute should not be confused with a descriptive attribute. A descriptive attribute is used to describe an object or to give some additional information about it. In a fortnight I got a long letter, which I considered odd. (E. Bronte) The post on her left was occupied by Mr. Erskine of Treadley, an old gentleman of considerable charm and culture. (Wilde) The use of a descriptive attribute does not affect the use of the article. The same articles would be used if there were no attribute whatever. One day in January he called at the seminary to return a book which he had borrowed. (Voynich) I have just spoken to the woman, who seems to have changed her mind. (Bennett) They went side by side, hand in hand, silently toward the hedge, where the May flower, both pink and white, was in full bloom. (Galsworthy) In the first example the indefinite article is used with the noun book because the object denoted by it is presented as belonging to a class. The noun woman is used with the definite article because the speaker and the hearer know what particular person is meant. The noun hedge is used with the definite article because the situation makes the object definite. NOUNS OF MATERIAL § 5. With nouns of material used in a general sense, when a certain material as such is meant, no article is used. Honey is wholesome. On hearing what had happened, she (Katie) ran for warm water... (Voynich) § 6. When a definite part of the substance is meant (when the noun is modified by a particularizing attribute or is made definite by the situation), the definite article is used. Pettinger gulped down a glass of the sherry which Cornelius had finally brought. (Heym) The meat was good and White Fang was hungry. (London) § 7. When an indefinite part of the substance is meant, some is used. We took some bread and cheese with us, and got some goat’s milk up there on the pasture. (Voynich) Nouns of material denoting different sorts of material are countables and the articles are used according to the general use of articles with class nouns. A pleasure to give a good wine to a young woman who looked so well. (Galsworthy) This use is very rare. ABSTRACT NOUNS § 8. When abstract nouns are used in a general sense, no article is used. While there is life there is hope. § 9. When abstract nouns are modified by a particularizing attribute or when the situation makes the idea definite, they are used with the definite article. He (Cowperwood) was the courage and force of his father, the spirit and opportunity of his brothers, the hope of his children, the dignity and significance of the Cowperwood name. (Dreiser) Last night I heard Carmen and enjoyed the music. N o t e 1. — It should be borne in mind that abstract nouns modified by an attribute in pre-position are used without articles unless they are modified by particularizing attributes: English literature, Russian art, Soviet music. N o t e 2. — The abstract noun weather is never used with the indefinite article. ‘What fine weather! It is burning weather.’ (Ch. Bronte) When the noun weather is used in a general sense, the definite article is used. There are people who say that the weather can influence people’s mood. (Bennett) § 10. Abstract nouns can be used with the indefinite article. In this case the abstract noun denotes a certain kind (оттенок) of a quality, feeling, state, etc. The noun nearly always has a descriptive attribute. How clever you are, Mr. Hopper. You have a cleverness quite of your own. (Wilde) In her eyes there was an eagerness, which could hardly be seen without delight. (Austen) (On the use of articles with countable abstract nouns see note on page 30.) § 11. The indefinite article is used with the nouns period, population, distance, height, salary etc. followed by of + numeral + noun. Simpson was out of the city for a period of ten days. (Dreiser) USE OF ARTICLES WITH PROPER NOUNS § 12. Names of persons. 1. Names of persons are used without articles. Sarie looked at Lanny and Celia. (Abrahams) 2. Names denoting the whole family are used with the definite article. The Dashwoods were now settled at Berton. (Austen) 3. When names of persons are used to denote a representative of a family, the indefinite article is used. “Florence will never, never, never be a Dorabey,” said Mrs. Chick. (Dickens) 4. Names of persons modified by a particularizing attribute are used with the definite article. You’re not the Andrew Manson I married. (Cronin) The tall blond man of forty is not much changed in feature from the Godfrey Cass of six-and-twenty. (Eliot) 5. Names of persons used as common nouns take the article according to the general rule on the use of articles. Swithin smiled and nodding at Bosinney said: “Why, you are quite a Monte Cristo.” (Galsworthy) Mozart has been called the Raphael of music. 6. Nouns denoting military ranks and titles such as academician, professor, doctor (both a profession and a title), count, lord, etc. followed by names of persons do not take the article. In such cases only the proper noun is stressed: Colonel Brown, Doctor Strong. Common nouns denoting professions followed by names of persons are used with the definite article. In this case both nouns are stressed. The painter Gainsborough has left many fine pictures. 7. Nouns expressing relationship followed by names of persons do not take the article: Aunt Polly, Uncle James. She turned to Cousin Clixam. (Bennett) Nouns expressing relationship not followed by a proper noun and the nouns nurse, cook, baby do not take the article when used by members of the family. “I’d like to see Mother,” said Emily. (Qalsworthy) If other people’s relations are meant, the article is used. The son is as clever as the father. 8. The use of articles with names of persons modified by adjectives is varied. In most cases no article is used with names of persons modified by the adjectives old, young, poor, dear, little, honest, lazy. ...she is the widow of poor Giovanni Bolla... (Voynich) He saw that old Chapin wanted to moralize a little. (Dreiser) When modified by other adjectives and participles names of persons take the definite article. He thought Amelia worthy even of the brilliant George Osborne. (Thackeray) The astonished Tom could not say a word. 9. Names of persons modified by the adjective certain are used with the indefinite article. I heard it from a certain Mr. Brown. |