A Grammar of the English Language. Грамматика английского языка. A grammar of the english language
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§ 25. Ways of expressing the meaning of the English articles in Russian. The meaning of the English article may sometimes be expressed in Russian by means of: (a) cases. Pour the water into the glass. Налейте воду в стакан. Pour some water into the glass. Налейте воды в стакан. (b) word order. A woman came up to me and asked what time it was. Ко мне подошла женщина и спросила, который час. The woman has come. Женщина пришла. (c) the words один, какой-то, какой-нибудь(the indefinite article), этот, тотсамый(the definite article). A man is waiting for you downstairs. Вас внизу ждет какой-то человек. Do you know Nina? Yes, I do. I like the girl immensely. Вы знаете Нину? Знаю. Мне очень нравится эта девушка. SPECIAL DIFFICULTIES IN THE USE OF ARTICLES § 26. The use of articles with the nouns day, night, morning, evening. The nouns day, night, morning, evening are used without articles: (a) if day and morning mean ‘light’, and night and evening mean ‘darkness’, or if they denote a certain part of the day. Day broke and we started. The sun had gone and night had come. (Abrahams) Day is meant for work, night for sleep. It was evening. The river was before them. (Dreiser) (b) in the expressions by day, at night, from morning till night. It is easier to work by day than at night. The definite article is used when these nouns are modified by a particularizing attribute or when the situation makes them definite. He will never forget the day when he met her. The night was warm and beautifully still. (Voynich) We spent the night in the forest. The indefinite article is used when the noun is modified by a descriptive attribute. I spent a sleepless night. When the nouns morning and evening are modified by the adjectives early and late, no articles are used because these adjectives do not describe the morning or night, but only show the time. It was early morning when the train pulled into the little siding. (Abrahams) § 27. The use of articles with names of seasons. Names of seasons are used without articles if they show a certain time of the year. It was spring. I like spring. The definite article is used when these nouns are modified by a particularizing attribute or when the situation makes them definite. It happened in the spring of 1930. The spring was cold and rainy. The indefinite article is used when these nouns are modified by a descriptive attribute. It was a cold spring. When names of seasons are modified by the adjectives early or late, no articles are used. It was early spring. § 28. The use of articles with the nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail. The nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail are used without an article when they lose their concrete meaning and express the purpose for which the objects denoted by these nouns serve. When these nouns denote concrete objects the articles are used according to the general principle. (a) School, college. to be at school to go to school } to be a schoolboy (schoolgirl) to be at college — to be a student of a college to leave school — to finish or drop one’s studies School begins at five. She went to College in the North. (Gow and D’Usseau) His history since he left school had been indicated in the last page. (Thackeray) It was at seventeen that he decided to leave school. to go to the school — not as a pupil (the building is meant) to leave the school — to leave the building Mother went to the school yesterday to attend a parents’ meeting. She left the school at 7 o’clock. (b) Bed. to go to bed — ложиться спать to be in bed — лежать в постели And now you had better go to bed. Good-night. (Voynich) to be in the bed to be on the bed} an article of furniture is meant Her portrait was on the wall beside the bed. (Voynich) (c) Prison, jail. to be in prison (in jail) — to be a prisoner to be sent to prison to be put in prison} as a prisoner Mr. Dorrit was in prison many years. Mr. Dorrit was sent to prison for debt. The last they had heard of him was that he was in jail for having killed a person in a fight. (Abrahams) to be in the prison to go to the prison} not a as prisoner (the building is meant) Mr. Dorrit’s family lived in the prison. The prison proper dated from 1822. (Dreiser) § 29. The use of articles with the noun town. The noun town when used with prepositions does not take an article: (a) when we mean the nearest town (if we live in the country) or the town we live in. You cannot go to town tomorrow. (Austen) What can you have to do in town...? (Austen) (b) when the noun town is opposed to the noun country. He was not used to country life, having spent twenty years in town. Otherwise the noun town is used with the definite or indefinite article. I want to go to the town where I was born. § 30. The use of articles with the names of meals. Names of meals are used without articles. When did you have dinner? Is dinner ready? Mother is cooking dinner. While they were at breakfast, the letters were brought in. (Austen) I have finished breakfast, ring the bell. (Ch. Bronte) The definite article is used when the nouns are modified by a particularizing attribute or when the situation makes them definite. The dinner we had to-day was very substantial. The dinner was a success. The indefinite article is used if the name of a meal is modified by a descriptive attribute. After a hearty breakfast the four gentlemen sallied forth to walk to Gravesend. (Dickens) § 31. The use of articles with names of languages. Names of languages when they are not followed by the noun language are used without articles: She knows English. Note the peculiar use of the definite article in: (1) It is a translation from the English (the French etc.), (2) What is the English (the French etc.) for ‘сосна’? The definite article is used if the noun is modified by a particularizing attribute: The English of America differs from the English of England. When the noun language is mentioned the definite article is used: the English language, the German language. USE OF ARTICLES WITH NOUNS MODIFIED BY CERTAIN ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS AND NUMERALS § 32. Most. (a) Most + adjective. The definite article is used when most serves to form the superlative degree of an adjective. This is the most interesting chapter in the book. The use of the indefinite article shows that a high degree of a quality is meant. Most has the same meaning as very, exceedingly. Caroline found that the old maid had been a most devoted daughter and sister. (Ch. Bronte) N o t e. — Occasionally the form of the superlative degree does not express comparison, but a high degree of a quality. He listened with the most profound attention. He listened with the deepest attention. The same phenomenon is found in Russian: Он слушал с глубочайшим вниманием. (в) Most + of + noun. When definite people or things are meant the noun is used with the definite article and most is followed by the preposition of. Most of the flowers in the garden were planted by the schoolchildren. Most of the gentlemen looked both angry and uncomfortable. (Voynich) We say most, not most of the, when we do not mean definite people or things. The noun is used in a general sense. Most flowers smell sweet. § 33. Few, a few, the few; little, a little, the little. Few means ‘мало’, it has a negative meaning. A few means ‘несколько’, it has a positive meaning. Thefewmeans ‘те немногие (которые)’. He was a very good man. There are few like him in the world today. (Abrahams) He left after a few moments. (Dreiser) You need not fear to hear the few remaining words we have to say. (Dickens) Little means ‘мало’, it has a negative meaning. A little means ‘некоторое количество’, it has a positive meaning. Thelittlemeans ‘то небольшое количество (которое)’. We can’t go skiing today. There is too little snow. We have a little time. Let us take a walk in the garden. Don’t waste the little time you have. § 34. Two, the two; three, the three, etc. Two means ‘два’. The two means ‘оба, те два’. Two students entered the room. The two friends travelled together. The two books you lent me proved very interesting. § 35. The second, a second. The second is an ordinal numeral meaning ‘второй’. The second attempt proved more successful than the first. A second means ‘another, one more’. Having eaten the gruel, Oliver asked for a second portion. In the third, a third, the fourth, a fourth etc. we see the same difference in meaning. He made an experiment which proved his theory. He made a second, a third, a fourth experiment with the same results. A second time means ‘once more’. I rang the bell, but nobody answered it, so I had to ring a second time. § 36. Another, the other. The pronoun another has two meanings: (а) ‘какой-либо другой’. Give me another pen, I don’t like this one. (в) ‘еще один’. I am thirsty; I should like another cup of tea. Theothermeans ‘определенный другой’. There are two books here, take one and I’ll take the other. § 37. Last, the last. Nouns modified by the adjective last are always used with the definite article except in the expressions last month, last year, last week, last summer (winter, autumn, spring). The last word remained with George. Last summer, in Switzerland, he was quite well. (Voynich) § 38. Next, the next. Next means ‘будущий’ when referring to time: next month, next week. The next means ‘следующий’: the next room, at the next lesson. Nexttimemeans ‘в следующий раз’. We shall discuss this matter next time. In reference to time viewed from the past both next and the next mean ‘следующий’. We spent a fortnight in Kiev. The next week was spent in Odessa (or: Next week was spent in Odessa). § 39. A number, the number. A number of means’ ‘many’. It is rendered in Russian by много, ряд. The number means ‘число, количество’. His father and a number of his cronies were in the dining-room. (Dreiser) The number of mistakes he makes is startling. OMISSION OF THE ARTICLE Sometimes the article is not used where we naturally expect to find it in accordance with the rules. No change of meaning is observed in these cases. The article is often omitted in newspaper headings, telegrams, in stage directions. Gas Blast Kills Woman. (Daily Worker) Girl Gymnast Keeps Title. (Moscow News) The article is often omitted with homogeneous members closely connected with each other and joined by the conjunction and. In most cases they go in pairs. The breakfast was taken away, and that meal over, it was the general custom of uncle and niece to separate. (Ch. Bronte) Chapter III THE ADJECTIVE § 1. The adjective is a word expressing a quality of a substance. § 2. The adjective has the following morphological characteristics: Most adjectives have degrees of comparison: the comparative degree and the superlative degree.1 1 Some adjectives have no degrees of comparison (see § 7). The comparative degree denotes a higher degree of a quality. She is taller than her sister. My box is smaller than hers. The superlative degree denotes the highest degree of a quality. She is the tallest of the three sisters. Her box is the smallest of all our boxes. (The noun modified by an adjective in the superlative degree has the definite article because the superlative degree of the adjective always implies limitation.) Adjectives form their degrees of comparison in the following way: (a) by the inflexion ‑er, ‑est (synthetical way); (b) by placing more and most before the adjective (analytical way). Monosyllabic adjectives usually form their comparatives and superlatives in the first way, and polysyllabic adjectives in the second way. The following polysyllabic adjectives, however, generally form their comparative and superlative degrees inflexionally: 1. Adjectives of two syllables which end in ‑y, ‑ow, -er, ‑le.
2. Adjectives of two syllables which have the stress on the last syllable:
Some adjectives have irregular forms of degrees of comparison, e. g.:
§ 3. Spelling rules. 1. If the adjective ends in a consonant preceded by a stressed short vowel the consonant is doubled before ‑er, ‑est.
2. If the adjective ends in ‑y preceded by a consonant, уis changed into i before ‑er and ‑est.
3. If the adjective ends in ‑e the e is dropped before ‑er and ‑est.
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