A Grammar of the English Language. Грамматика английского языка. A grammar of the english language
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participle, the gerund and the infinitive. In Russian we also have three non-finite forms of the verb, but they do not fully coincide with those in the English language (причастие, деепричастие, инфинитив). § 2. The characteristic traits of the verbals are as follows: 1. They have a double nature, nominal and verbal. The participle combines the characteristics of a verb with those of an adjective; the gerund and the infinitive combine the characteristics of a verb with those of a noun. 2. The tense distinctions of the verbals are not absolute (like those of the finite verb), but relative; the form of a verbal does not show whether the action it denotes refers to the present, past or future; it shows only whether the action expressed by the verbal is simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb or prior to it. 3. All the verbals can form predicative constructions, i. e. constructions consisting of two elements, a nominal (noun or pronoun) and a verbal (participle, gerund or infinitive); the verbal element stands in predicate relation to the nominal element, i. e. in a relation similar to that between the subject and the predicate of the sentence. In most cases predicative constructions form syntactic units, serving as one part of the sentence. They sat down to supper, Mansion still talking cheerfully. (Hardy) Они сели ужинать; Мэнстон продолжал весело разговаривать. Mansion still talking cheerfully is a predicative construction with a participle: the participle talking stands in predicate relation to the noun Mansion, which denotes the doer of the action expressed by the participle. In the sentence a verbal may occur: (a) singly, i. e. without accompanying words. She... went away smiling. (Dreiser) Она... ушла, улыбаясь. Reading is out of the question — I can’t fix my attention on books. (Collins) О чтении не может быть и речи — я не могу сосредоточить свое внимание на книгах. То decide is to act. Решить — значит начать действовать. (b) in phrases, i. e. with one or several accompanying words (an object or an adverbial modifier to the verbal). These phrases form syntactic units serving as one part of the sentence. A phrase should not be confused with a predicative construction: between the elements of a phrase there is no predicate relation as it does not include a noun or a pronoun denoting the doer of the action expressed by a verbal. The windows of the drawing-room opened to a balcony overlooking the garden. (Mansfield) Окна гостиной выходили на балкон, с которого был виден сад. She tried to tranquillize him by reading aloud. (Gaskell) Она пыталась успокоить его тем, что читала ему вслух. Not to disquiet his sister, he had said nothing to her of the matter. (Hardy) Чтобы не встревожить сестру, он ничего не сказал ей об этом. (c) in predicative constructions. My mistress being dead... I had to look out for a new place. (Ch. Bronte) Так как моя хозяйка умерла, мне пришлось искать другое место. There is no mistake about his being a genius. (Shaw) He может быть никакого сомнения в том, что он — гений. She heard him unbar the door and go out into the yard. (Hardy) Она слышала, как он отодвинул засов и вышел во двор. THE PARTICIPLE § 3. The participle is a non-finite form of the verb which has a verbal and an adjectival or an adverbial character. There are two participles in English — Participle I and Participle II, traditionally called the Present Participle and the Past Participle. N o t e. — These traditional terms are open to objection on the ground that Participle I does not necessarily refer to the present, just as Participle II need not refer to the past. The difference between them is not a difference in tense, but, chiefly a difference in voice. Participle I is formed by adding the suffix ‑ing to the stem of the verb; the following spelling rules should be observed: (a) If a verb ends in a mute e, the mute e is dropped before adding the suffix ‑ing: to give — giving, to close — closing. (b) If a verb ends in a consonant preceded by a vowel rendering a short stressed sound, the final consonant is doubled before adding the suffix ‑ing: to run — running, to forget — forgetting, to admit — admitting. A final l is doubled if it is preceded by a vowel letter rendering a short vowel sound, stressed or unstressed: to expel — expelling, to travel — travelling. (c) The verbs to die, to lie and to tie form Participle I in the following way: dying, lying, tying. N o t e. — A final уis not changed before adding the suffix ‑ing: to comply — complying, to deny — denying. (For the formation of Participle II see Chapter VII, § 3.) § 4. As has already been stated, the participle has a verbal and an adjectival or adverbial character. Its adjectival or adverbial character is manifested in its syntactic functions, those of attribute or adverbial modifier. I hated the hollow sound of the rain pattering on the roof. (DttMaurier) (ATTRIBUTE). Мне был отвратителен глухой шум дождя, стучавшего по крыше. And then she turned to the title-page, and looked at the name written in the schoolboy hand. (Ch. Bronte) (ATTRIBUTE) Затем она открыла книгу на титульном листе и посмотрела на имя, написанное ученическим почерком. Having garaged his car, he remembered that he had not lunched. (Galsworthy) (ADVERBIAL MODIFIER) Поставив машину в гараж, он вспомнил, что не завтракал. When left to herself she spent her time at her writing desk. (Trollope) (ADVERBIAL MODIFIER) Оставшись одна, она провела время за своим письменным столом. N o t e. — Some participles have lost their verbality altogether and have become adjectives: interesting, charming, alarming, etc., complicated, distinguished, furnished, etc. E. g. an interesting book, a charming girl, the alarming news; a complicated problem, a distinguished writer, a furnished apartment. The verbal characteristics of the participle are as follows: 1. Participle I of a transitive verb can take a direct object. Opening the door,he went out on to the terrace. (Galsworthy) 2. Participle I and Participle II can be modified by an adverb. Leaving the room hurriedly,he ran out. (Thackeray) Deeply effected, Priam Farll rose and left the room. (Bennett) 3. Participle I has tense distinctions; Participle I of transitive verbs has also voice distinctions. In Modern English Participle I has the following forms:
§ 5. The tense distinctions of the participle. Like the tense distinctions of all the verbals, those of the participle are not absolute but relative. Participle I Indefinite Active and Passive usually denotes an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb; depending oh the tense-form of the finite verb it may refer to the present, past, or future. When reading The Pickwick Papers,one can’t help laughing. When reading The Pickwick Papers,I couldn’t help laughing. When reading The Pickwick Papers, you will roar with laughter. He looked at the carpet while waiting for her answer. (Galsworthy) Он смотрел на ковер, ожидая ее ответа. Не returned to the hut, bringing in his arms a new-born lamb. (Hardy) Он вернулся в хижину, неся на руках новорожденного ягненка. Not being able to read, think, or work, Bathsheba asked Liddy to stay and breakfast with her. (Hardy) Так как Батшеба не была в состоянии (не будучи в состоянии) ни читать, ни думать, ни работать, она попросила Лидди остаться позавтракать с ней. Being left alone, Pauline and I kept silence for some time. (Ch. Bronte) Оставшись одни, мы с Полиной некоторое время молчали. She did not speak, being filled with the sense of silent confidence. (Eliot) Она не сказала ни слова; ее переполняло чувство доверия, не нуждавшееся в словах. Sometimes Participle I Indefinite denotes an action referring to no particular time. The last turning had brought them into the high-road leading to Bath. (Hardy) После последнего поворота они вышли на дорогу, ведущую (которая вела) в Бат. Participle I Perfect Active and Passive denotes an action prior to the action expressed by the finite verb. Mr. Bumble, having spread a handkerchief over his knees... began to eat and drink. (Dickens) Мистер Бамбл, разостлав платок на коленях..., стал есть и пить. They were, indeed, old friends, having been at school together. (Walpole) Они и в самом деле были старыми друзьями, так как вместе учились в школе. Having already been informed that he always slept with a light in the room, I placed one of the two lighted candles on a little table at the head of the bed... (Collins) Так как мне уже сообщили, что он всегда спит при свете, я поставил одну из двух зажженных свечей на столик у кровати. It should be noted that a prior action is not always expressed by Participle I Perfect: with some verbs of sense perception and motion, such as to see, to hear, to come, to arrive, to seize, to look, to turn and some others, Participle I Indefinite is used even when priority is meant. Turning down an obscure street and entering an obscurer lane, he went up to a smith’s shop. (Hardy) Свернув на темную улицу и войдя в еще более темный переулок, он подошел к кузнице. Hearing a footstep below he rose and went to the top of the stairs. (Hardy) Услышав шаги внизу, он встал и вышел на лестницу. Participle II has no tense distinctions; it has only one form which can express both an action simultaneous with, and prior to the action expressed by the finite verb; the latter case is more frequent. His sister’s eyes fixed on him with a certain astonishment, obliged him at last to look at Fleur. (Galsworthy) Взгляд сестры, устремленный на него с некоторым недоумением, заставил его, наконец, взглянуть на Флер. I was reminded of a portrait seen in a gallery. (DuMaulier) Мне вспомнился портрет, который я видела в картинной галерее. In some cases Participle II denotes an action referring to no particular time. He is a man loved and admired by everybody. § 6. The voice distinctions of the participle. Participle I of transitive verbs has special forms to denote the active and the passive voice. When writing letters he does not like to be disturbed. Being written in pencil the letter was difficult to make out. Having written some letters he went to post them. Having been written long ago the manuscript was illegible. Participle II of transitive verbs has a passive meaning, e, g. a broken glass, a caged bird. Participle II of intransitive verbs has no passive meaning; it is used only in compound tense-forms and has no independent function in the sentence unless it belongs to a verb which denotes passing into a new state, e. g. a withered flower, a faded leaf § 7. The functions of Participle I in the sentence. Participle I may have different syntactic functions. 1. Participle I as an attribute. Participle I Indefinite Active can he used as an attribute; in this function it corresponds to the Russian действительное причастие. The fence surrounding the garden is newly painted. Забор, окружающий сад, недавно покрашен. We admired the stars twinkling in the sky. Мы любовались звездами, мерцавшими на небе. In some cases, Participle I in the function of an attribute is rendered in Russian by a clause. He came back and stood irresolute on the steps leading down to the street. (Cusack) Он вернулся и стоял в нерешительности на лестнице, которая вела на улицу. In the function of an attribute Participle I can be in pre-position and in post-position, i. e. it can precede the noun it modifies and follow it. Participle I in pre-position hardly ever has accompanying words. The gate-keeper surveyed the retreating vehicle. (Hardy) Привратник смотрел на удалявшийся экипаж. Participle I in post-position as a rule has one or several accompanying words. They dined outside upon the terrace facing Vesuvius.(Hlchens) Они пообедали на террасе, выходившей к Везувию. Through the massive sunlight illuminating the hall at Robin Hill,the July sunlight at five o’clock fell just where the broad staircase turned. (Galsworthy) Сквозь массивную стеклянную крышу, освещавшую холл в Робин Хилле, лучи июльского солнца в пять часов падали как раз на поворот широкой лестницы. Participle I Indefinite Passive is very seldom used as an attribute. There was one line being laid out to within a few blocks of his new home... which interested him greatly. (Dreiser) Его очень интересовала линия, которую прокладывали в нескольких кварталах от его нового дома. Participle I Perfect Active and Passive is not used attributively. Attention should be paid to the fact that Participle I in the function of an attribute cannot express priority; therefore it often happens that when in Russian we have причастие in English we find a finite verb. Such is the case with the Russian действительное причастие прошедшего времени expressing priority; it is rendered in English by an attributive clause. Татьяна, с великим равнодушием переносившая до того мгновения все превратности своей жизни, тут, однако, не вытерпела, прослезилась. (Тургенев) Tatyana, who had until that moment borne all the ups and downs of her life with great indifference, broke down, however, on this and burst into tears. (TranslatedbyDomb) Бульба повел сыновей своих в светлицу, откуда проворно выбежали две красивые девки-прислужницы, прибиравшие комнату. (Гоголь) Bulba bade his sons follow him into the little guest-chamber, whence two pretty serving-wenches, who had been arranging the room, ran out. (Translated by Baskervllle) A clause, not a participle, is generally used in English even when the Russian действительное причастие прошедшего времени expresses an action simultaneous with that of the finite verb. Базаров закурил трубку и подошел к ямщику, отпрягавшему лошадей. (Тургенев) Bazarov lit his pipe and went up to the driver, who was unharnessing the horses. (TranslatedbyC. Garnett) Матушка, знавшая наизусть все его обычаи... всегда старалась засунуть несчастную книгу подальше. (Пушкин) My mother, who knew all his habits, used to thrust the obnoxious volume into some remote hiding-place. (Translated by J. and T. Litvinov) Occasionally, however, in rendering the Russian действительное причастие прошедшего времени, a participle is used in English. This is often the case when действительное причастие прошедшего времени refers to no particular time. Заря уже занималась на небе, когда Соломин постучался в калитку высокого забора, окружавшего фабрику. (Тургенев) Dawn was already beginning in the sky when Solomin knocked at the gate in the high fence surrounding the factory. (TranslatedbyC. Garnett) Потом он обратил внимание посетителей на висевшую над его головой картину, писанную масляными красками. (Тургенев) Then he drew the attention of his guests to a picture hanging above his head, painted in oils. (Translated by C. Garnett) In many cases an attribute expressed by Participle I is detached, i. e. it acquires a certain independence in the sentence; the connection between the attribute and the word it modifies is loose. A detached attribute is usually separated by a comma. It was the entrance to a large family vault, extending under the north aisle. (Hardy) Это был вход в большой фамильный склеп, простиравшийся под северным приделом храма. 2. Participle I as an adverbial modifier. All the forms of Participle I may be used as an adverbial modifier. Participle I Indefinite expresses an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb and corresponds to the Russian деепричастие несовершенного вида; Participle I Perfect, expresses an action prior to the action expressed by the finite verb and corresponds to the Russian деепричастие совершенного вида. In some cases Participle I in the function of an adverbial modifier is rendered in Russian by an adverbial clause. Participle I can be an adverbial modifier: (a) of time. Approaching Malta Street, Soho, Soames thought with wonder of those years in Brighton. (Galsworthy) Приближаясь к Мальта Стрит в Сохо, Соме с удивлением думал о годах, проведенных в Брайтоне. Having closed the drawing-room door on him, Isabel awaited a little, absorbed in her own thoughts. (Collins) Закрыв за ним дверь гостиной, Изабелла подождала немного, погруженная в свои мысли. Having reached the classroom, she became the object of many questions. (Collins) Когда она вошла в класс, ее стали засыпать вопросами. As has already been stated, with some verbs of sense perception and motion, such as to see, to hear, to come, to arrive, to enter, to seize, to look out, to turn and some others, Participle I Indefinite is used even when priority is meant. In Russian деепричастие совершенного вида is used in such cases. Anna... hearing his step, ran to the foot of the stairs to meet him. (Eliot) Анна... услышав его шаги, побежала вниз по лестнице встретить его. Arriving there the visitor found everything that should be found at old manors. (Coppard) Приехав туда, гость нашел все то, что обычно находят в старых поместьях. Entering her room that evening, Elfride found a packet for herself on the dressing-table. (Hardy) Войдя вечером в свою комнату, Элфрид нашла на туалетном столе сверток. Seizing ink and writing paper, she began to write... (Galsworthy) Схватив чернила и бумагу, она начала писать. Turning slowly she went to her room. (Eliot) Медленно повернувшись, она пошла в свою комнату. If the action expressed by Participle I Indefinite Active is simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb, the conjunction when or while is often used. ...it was possible for Urquhart, when making his toilet, to survey with pride an original willow pattern tea service. (Cronin) Экхарт мог, пока он одевался, с гордостью любоваться чайным сервизом с настоящим китайским рисунком. While waiting for the water to boil, he held his face over the stove. (London) Дожидаясь, когда закипит вода, он наклонился над печкой. N o t e. — Participle I Indefinite of the verb to be is not used as an adverbial modifier of time. Clauses of the type ‘Когда он был ребенком’, ‘Когда он был в Ленинграде’, may be translated When a boy, When he was a boy, When in Leningrad, When he was in Leningrad. (b) of cause. Being of a more slender figure than Mr. Jarndyce, and having a richer complexion, Mr. Skimpole looked younger. (Dickens) Так как мистер Скимпоул был стройнее мистера Джарндайса и так как цвет лица у него был лучше, он выглядел моложе. Having been a little in that line myself, I understood it. (Shaw) Так как я сам раньше некоторое время работал в этой области, я понимал, это. (c) of manner and attendant circumstances. In this function Participle I Indefinite is mostly used. She balanced herself on the curbstone and began to walk carefully, setting heel to toe, heel to toe, and counting her steps. (Heym) (ADVERBIAL MODIFIER OF MANNER) Она встала на край тротуара и осторожно пошла вперед, переступая с пятки на кончики пальцев и считая свои шаги. Gwendolen was silent, again looking at her hands. (Elliot) (ADVERBIAL MODIFIER OF ATTENDANT CIRCUMSTANCES) Гвендолен молчала, разглядывая свои руки. It is not always easy to discriminate between an adverbial modifier of manner and an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances. He has been in three revolutions fighting on the barricades. (Shaw) Он принимал участие в трех революциях, сражаясь на баррикадах. (d) of comparison. In this function Participle I is introduced by the conjunction as if or as though. This was said as if thinking aloud. (Gaskell) Это было сказано так, как будто он думал вслух. ...he was still on his guard, as though waiting for a further question from me. (DuMaurier) Он все еще был настороже, словно ожидая, что я задам ему еще один вопрос. 3. Participle I as a predicative. In this function Participle I is used but seldom; it is usually rendered in Russian by an adjective. The effect of her words was terrifying. Впечатление, произведенное ее словами, было страшно. The whole damned day had been humiliating. (Priestley) Весь этот ужасный день был унизительным. 4. Participle I as |