A Grammar of the English Language. Грамматика английского языка. A grammar of the english language
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part of a compound verbal predicate. (a) With verbs and verbal phrases denoting modality the gerund forms part of a compound verbal modal predicate. We intend going to Switzerland, and climbing Mount Blanc. (Ch. Bronte) Мы хотим поехать в Швейцарию и подняться на Монблан. Joseph could not help admiring the man. (Heym) Джозеф не мог не восхищаться этим человеком. (b) With verbs denoting the beginning, the duration, or the end of an action, the gerund forms part of a compound verbal aspect predicate. She began sobbing and weeping. (Dickens) In. the night it started raining. (Hemingway) Bathsheba continued walking. (Hardy) Tom went on whitewashing. (Twain) She took my hand and kept on laughing. (Hemingway) Isabella ceased speaking. (E. Bronte) (For detailed treatment of the compound verbal predicate see Chapter XV, § 16, 17.) 4. The gerund as an object. The gerund may be used as a direct object and as a prepositional indirect object. I simply love riding. (Galsworthy) (DIRECT OBJECT) Я просто обожаю кататься верхом. She enjoyed singing and playing to him. (London) (DIRECT OBJECT) Ей доставляло удовольствие петь и играть для него. The times were good for building... (Galsworthy) (PREPOSITIONAL INDIRECT OBJECT) Время для постройки дома было самое подходящее. Charlie did not succeed in taking things easily. (Priestley) (PREPOSITIONAL INDIRECT OBJECT) Чарли не удавалось смотреть легко на вещи. Predicative constructions with the gerund form a complex object as they consist of two distinct elements, nominal and verbal. Perhaps you wouldn’t mind Richard’s coming in? (Dickens) (COMPLEX OBJECT) Может быть, вы не будете возражать против того, чтобы вошел Ричард? Aunt Augusta won’t quite approve of your being here. (Wilde) (PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEX OBJECT) Тетя Августа будет не очень довольна тем, что вы здесь. 5. The gerund as an attribute. In this function the gerund is always preceded by a preposition. Swithin protruded his pale round eyes with the effort of hearing. (Galsworthy) Суизин широко открыл свои бесцветные круглые глаза, стараясь услышать разговор. Не was born with the gift of winning hearts. (Gaskell) Он родился с даром покорять сердца. She had a feeling of having been worsted... (Galsworthy) У нее было чувство, что над ней одержали верх... ...there’s no chance of their getting married for years. (Galsworthy) ...нет никакой надежды на то, что они смогут скоро пожениться. Presently there was the sound of the car being brought to the door. (Du Maurier) Вскоре послышался шум автомобиля, который подъезжал к двери. 6. The gerund as an adverbial modifier. In this function the gerund is always preceded by a preposition. It is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of time, manner, attendant circumstances, cause, condition, purpose and concession; the most common functions are those of adverbial modifiers of time, manner, and attendant circumstances. (a) As an adverbial modifier of time the gerund is preceded by the preposition after, before, on (upon), in or at. After leaving, her umbrella in the hall, she entered the living room. (Cronin) Оставив зонтик в передней, она вошла в гостиную. Не was to have three days at home before going back to farm. (Galsworthy) Он должен был пробыть три дня дома, прежде чем возвратиться на ферму. On reaching Casterbridge he left the horse and trap at an inn. (Hardy) Приехав в Кастербридж, он оставил лошадь и экипаж в гостинице. Mr. Bumble’s conduct on being left to himself was rather inexplicable. (Dickens) Поведение мистера Бамбля, когда он остался один, было не совсем понятно. Upon waking I found myself much recovered. (Swift) Когда я проснулся (проснувшись), я почувствовал себя значительно лучше. In quitting the room he paused once more at my desk. (Ch. Bronte) Выходя из комнаты, он еще раз остановился у моего письменного стола. Clare turned at hearing her footsteps... (Hardy) Услышав ее шаги, Клэр оглянулся. N o t e. — In the function of an adverbial modifier of time the gerund sometimes competes with the participle. George, on hearing the story, grinned. (Galsworthy) Джордж, услышав эту историю, усмехнулся. The four girls, hearing him speak in the hall, rushed out of the library. (Eliot) Все четыре девочки, услышав, что он говорит в передней, выбежали из библиотеки, After reaching the second landing... I heard a sound of quiet and regular breathing on my left-hand side. (Collins) Дойдя до второй площадки лестницы... я услышал с левой стороны спокойное и ровное дыхание. Reaching the door of the room occupied by Cowperwood and Aileen, she tapped lightly. (Dreiser) Дойдя до двери комнаты, которую занимали Каупервуд и Эйлин, она т ихонько постучала. (b) As an adverbial modifier of manner the gerund is used with the prepositions by or in. She startled her father by bursting into tears. (Gaskell) Она напугала своего отца тем, что расплакалась. The day was spent in packing. (DuMaurier) День прошел за упаковкой вещей. (c) As an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances the gerund is preceded by the preposition without. She was not brilliant, not active, but rather peaceful and statuesque without knowing it. (Dreiser) Это была женщина не блестящая, не энергичная, но она была очень спокойна и величественна, сама того не зная. (d) As an adverbial modifier of purpose, the gerund is chiefly used with the preposition for. ...one side of the gallery was used for dancing. (Eliot) ...одна сторона галереи использовалась для танцев. (e) As an adverbial modifier of condition the gerund is preceded by the preposition without. He has no right to come bothering you and papa without being invited. (Shaw) Он не имеет права приходить и беспокоить вас и отца, если его не приглашают. (f) As an adverbial modifier of cause the gerund is used with the prepositions for, for fear of, owing to. I feel the better myself for having spent a good deal of my time abroad. (Eliot) Я чувствую себя лучше оттого, что долго прожил за границей. I dared not attend the funeral for fear of making a fool of myself. (Coppard) Я не смел присутствовать на похоронах, так как боялся поставить себя в глупое положение. (g) As an adverbial modifier of concession the gerund is preceded by the preposition in spite of. In spite of being busy, he did all he could to help her. The above examples show that the gerund preceded by one and the same preposition may be used in different functions: with the preposition without, it may perform, the function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances and of condition; with the preposition in, it may perform the function of an adverbial modifier of time and of manner; with the preposition for, it may perform the function of an adverbial modifier of purpose or of cause. N o t e. — The Russian не + деепричастие may correspond to the English without + gerund or not + participle. It corresponds to not + participle if it is used in the function of an adverbial modifier of cause. He зная адреса мисс Бетси, Давид не мог ей написать. Not knowing Miss Betsey’s address, David could not write to her. (CAUSE) If не + деепричастие is used in the function of adverbial modifiers of attendant circumstances and of condition, it corresponds to without + gerund. Давид уехал из Лондона, никому ничего не сказав. David left London without telling anybody about it. (ATTENDANT CIRCUMSTANCES) Мальчики не могли уходить из Салем-Хауса, не спросив разрешения. The boys could not leave Salem House without asking for permission. (CONDITION) § 24. The gerund and the participle. In most cases the differentiation between the gerund and the participle does not present any difficulty. Unlike the participle the gerund may be preceded by a preposition, it may be modified by a noun in the possessive case or by a possessive pronoun; it can be used in the function of a subject, object, and predicative. In the function of an attribute and of an adverbial modifier both the gerund and the participle may be used,, but the gerund in these functions is always preceded by a preposition. There are cases, however, when the differentiation between the’ gerund and the participle presents some difficulty; for instance, it is not always easy to distinguish between a gerund as part of a compound noun and a participle used as an attribute to a noun. One should bear in mind that if we have a gerund as part of a compound noun, the person or thing denoted by the noun does not perform the action expressed by the ing-form: e. g. a dancing-hall (a hall for dancing), a cooking-stove (a stove for cooking), walking shoes, a writing-table, etc. If we have a participle used as an attribute the person denoted by the noun performs the action expressed by the ing-form:e. g. a dancing girl (a girl who dances), a singing child, etc. However, there are cases which admit of two interpretations; for example a sewing machine may be understood in two ways: a machine for sewing and a machine which sews; a hunting dog may be a dog for hunting and a dog that hunts. § 25. The gerund and the verbal noun. The gerund should not be confused with the verbal noun, which has the same suffix ‑ing. The main points of difference between the gerund and the verbal noun are as follows:
THE INFINITIVE § 26. The infinitive developed from the verbal noun, which in course of time became verbalized, retaining at the same time some of its nominal properties. Thus in Modern English the infinitive, like the participle and the gerund, has a double nature, nominal and verbal. 1. The nominal character of the infinitive is manifested in its syntactic functions. The infinitive can be used: (a) as the subject of a sentence. To go on like this was dangerous. (Galsworthy) (b) as a predicative. Her plan was now to drive to Bath during the night. (Hardy) (c) as an object. I have never learnt to read or write. (Collins) 2. The verbal characteristics of the infinitive are as follows: (a) the infinitive of transitive verbs can take a direct object. He... began to feel some curiosity... (Eliot) (b) the infinitive can be modified by an adverb. I cannot write so quickly. (c) the infinitive has tense and aspect distinctions; the infinitive of transitive verbs has also voice distinctions. In Modern English the infinitive has the following forms:
§ 27. The tense and aspect distinctions of the infinitive. Like the tense distinctions of all verbals those of the infinitive are not absolute but relative. 1. The Indefinite Infinitive expresses an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb, so it may refer to the present, past or future. I am glad to meet you. (Dreiser) I was glad to see Mr. Paul. (Ch. Bronte) Mr. Forsyte will be very glad to see you. (Galsworthy) 2. The Continuous Infinitive also denotes an action simultaneous with that expressed by the finite verb, but it is an action in progress. Thus the continuous, infinitive is not only a tense form, but also an aspect form, expressing both time relations and the manner in which the action is presented. They happened, at the moment, to be standing near a small conservatory at the end of the garden. (Collins) В этот момент они как раз стояли около небольшой оранжереи в конце сада. 3. The Perfect Infinitive denotes an action prior to the action expressed by the finite verb. “I’m glad to have seen you,” he said. (Dreiser) «Я рад, что повидал вас», — сказал он. An intimate friend is said to have dined with him that day. (Hardy) Говорят, что в этот день у него обедал его близкий друг. After such verbs as to mean, to expect, to intend, to hope used in the Past Indefinite, the Perfect Infinitive shows that the hope or intention was not carried out. I meant to have gone there. Я собирался пойти туда (но не пошел). I meant to have given you five shillings this morning for a Christmas-box, Sam. I’ll give it you this afternoon, Sam. (Dickens) Я хотел подарить вам пять шиллингов на рождество, Сэм; я подарю их вам сегодня, Сэм. The same meaning can be conveyed by the Past Perfect of the finite verb followed by the Indefinite Infinitive. I had meant to go there. He had meant to marry me. (Eliot) Он имел намерение жениться на мне. Some English grammarians prefer the latter construction. N o t e. — The idea, however, is often expressed in the following way: I meant to go there, but never did. (On the use of the Perfect Infinitive with modal verbs see Chapter VII, Modal Verbs.) 4. The Perfect Continuous Infinitive denotes an action which lasted, a certain time before the action of the finite verb. It is not only a tense form, but also an aspect form. For about ten days we seemed to have been living on nothing but cold meat, cake and bread and jam. (Jerome) Дней десять мы, казалось, питались только холодным мясом, печеньем и хлебом с вареньем. § 28. The voice distinctions of the infinitive. The infinitive of transitive verbs has special forms for the Active and the Passive Voice: It is so glorious to love and to be loved... (Stone) Так прекрасно любить и быть любимым. In sentences with the construction there is the infinitive of some verbs can be active or passive without any change in the meaning: There’s no time to lose. (Dreiser) There is no time to be lost. (Eliot) There is nothing to fear (to be feared). § 29. The use of the infinitive without the particle to (the bare infinitive). In Modern English the infinitive is chiefly used with the particle to. In Old English to was a preposition used with the infinitive in the dative case to indicate purpose (to writenne meant ‘in order to write’). Later on to was re-interpreted as the formal sign 6f the infinitive and came to be used not only to denote purpose but in other cases as well. Still there are cases when the so-called bare infinitive (the infinitive without the particle to) is used. They are as follows: 1. After auxiliary verbs. I don’t understand the meaning of this passage. We shall go there at once. 2. After modal verbs except the verb ought. If one cannot have what one loves, one must love what one has. (Wilson) (On the use of the bare infinitive with the verbs dare and need see Chapter VII, Modal Verbs.) 3. After verbs denoting sense perception, such as to hear, to see, to feel, etc. In a few minutes they heard him ascend the ladder to his own room. (Hardy) Через несколько минут они услышали, что он поднимается по лестнице в свою комнату. I never saw you look so well before. (Hardy) Я никогда не видел, чтобы вы так хорошо выглядели. I felt my heart jump. (Heym) Я почувствовал, что у меня ёкнуло сердце. N о t e. — The verb to be after the verb to feel is used with the particle to: I felt this to be very true. (Dickens) Я чувствовал, что это совершенно верно. 4. After the verb to let. Let us be the best friends in the world! (Dickens) 5. After the verb to make in the meaning of ‘заставлять’ and the verb to have in the meaning of ‘заставлять, допускать, велеть’. What makes you think so? (Carter) Что заставляет вас так думать? I... had them take my baggage. (Hemingway) Я... велел им взять мой багаж. The verb to have in the meaning of ‘допускать’ is chiefly used after the modal verbs will and would in negative sentences. I will not have you call him Daniel any more. (Trollope) Я не допущу, чтобы вы продолжали называть его Даниэлем. I would not have you think that I am selfish. (Trollope) Я не допущу, чтобы вы считали меня эгоистом. 6. After the verb to know when its meaning approaches that of to see, to observe (the verb to know never has this meaning in the Present Indefinite). I have so often known a change of medicine work wonders. (Shaw) Я так часто замечала, что перемена лекарства творит чудеса. In this case, however, the particle to is sometimes used: I have never known her to weep before. (Cronin) Я никогда раньше не видел, чтобы она плакала. N o t e. — After the verbs to hear, to see, to make and to know in the Passive Voice the to-Infinitive is used. He was heard to mention your name several times. Слышали, как он несколько раз упомянул ваше имя. They were seen to leave the house early in the morning. Видели, что они рано утром вышли из дома. The child was made to obey. Ребенка заставили слушаться. Sir Pitt Crawley was never known to give away a shilling or to do a good action. Никто никогда не видел, чтобы сэр Питт Кроули дал кому-нибудь шиллинг или сделал доброе дело. 7. After the verb to bid. I bowed and waited, thinking she would bid me take a seat. (E. Bronte) Я поклонился и подождал, думая, что она предложит мне сесть. The verb to bid is obsolete and is not used in colloquial speech. 8. After the expressions had better, would rather, would sooner, cannot but, nothing but, cannot choose but. You had better go to bed and leave the patient to me. (Shaw) Вы бы лучше легли спать и оставили пациента на моем попечении. I would rather not speak upon the subject. (Hardy) Я бы предпочел не говорить на эту тему. I would sooner die here, at your feet... than see you married to such a one as that. (Trollope) Я предпочел бы умереть здесь, у ваших ног... чем видеть вас замужем за таким человеком. I cannot but think so. (Trollope) Я не могу не думать так. There was nothing left for him to do but watch and wait. Единственное, что ему оставалось, — это наблюдать и ждать. She does nothing but make scenes from morning till night. (Shaw) Она только и делает, что устраивает сцены с утра до ночи. I looked long at that picture, and could not choose but look. (Ch. Bronte) Я долго смотрела на эту картину и не могла не смотреть на нее. Had better, would rather, to do nothing but belong to colloquial English, whereas cannot but and cannot choose but are characteristic of elevated style. 9. In sentences of a special type (infinitive sentences) beginning with why. Why not come and talk to her yourself? (Reade) Почему бы вам самой не прийти поговорить с ней? The particle to is often used without the infinitive if it is easily understood from the context. He and his three men could not defend Rolling’en even if they wanted to. (Heym) Он и трое его солдат не могли бы оборонять Роллинген, даже если бы захотели. The particle to may be separated from the infinitive by an adverb; this is the so-called split infinitive. It is hardly ever used in colloquial English. He was unable, however, to long keep silence. (Galsworthy) Он был, однако, не в состоянии долго молчать. § 30. The functions of the infinitive in the sentence. The infinitive can be used in different syntactic functions. A single infinitive occurs but seldom: in most cases we find an infinitive phrase, i.e. an infinitive with one or several accompanying words. 1. The infinitive as a subject. To doubt, under the circumstances, is almost to insult. (Ch. .Bronte) Сомневаться при таких обстоятельствах — это почти означает нанести оскорбление. То acquire knowledge and to acquire it unceasingly, is the first duty of the artist. (Thurston) Приобретать знания, и приобретать их непрерывно — вот первый долг художника. Even to think of it gave him ineffable torture. (Bennett) Одна мысль об этом причиняла ему невыразимые страдания. То be recognized, greeted by some local personage afforded her a joy which was very great. (Cronin) Когда ее узнавал и приветствовал какой-нибудь видный местный житель, она испытывала большую радость. From these examples we can see that the infinitive as a subject can be rendered in Russian by an infinitive, by a noun, or by a clause. Though the infinitive as the subject sometimes precedes the predicate, cases when it follows the predicate are far more common; with the infinitive in the latter position, the sentence opens with the introductory it, which serves as an introductory subject. The introductory it is not translated into Russian. Itis useless to discuss the question. (Eliot) Бесполезно обсуждать этот вопрос. Itwas pleasant to be driving a car again. (Braine) Было приятно снова вести машину. 2. The infinitive as a preidicative. My intention is to get into parliament. (Trollope) Моя цель — пройти в парламент. The infinitive can also be used as |