A Grammar of the English Language. Грамматика английского языка. A grammar of the english language
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particle is a part of speech giving modal or emotional emphasis to other words or groups of words or clauses. A particle may join one part of the sentence to another (connecting particles). Particles have no independent function in the sentence. § 2. According to their meaning particles fall under the following main groups: 1. Limiting particles: only, just, but, alone, solely, merely, barely, etc. I only wanted to make you speak. (Shaw) Just one question, Mrs. Dartie. Are you still fond of your husband? (Galsworthy) Soames was but following in the footsteps of his father. (Galsworthy) Her name alone was almost enough for one who was terribly susceptible to the charm of words. (Galsworthy) He had taken up with it solely because he was starving. (London) She (Ruth) thought she was merely interested in him (Martin) as an unusual type possessing various potential excellences, and she even felt philanthropic about it. (London) They were spreading not merely on the surface, but within. (Galsworthy) He barely acknowledged the young fellow’s salute. (Galsworthy) 2. Intensifying particles: simply, still, just, yet, all, but, only, quite, even, etc. He made plans to renew this time in places still more delightful. (Galsworthy) He just did dislike him. (Galsworthy) They did not even know that he was married. (Galsworthy) If Jo were only with him! (Galsworthy) But out there he’ll simply get bored to death. (Galsworthy) 3. Connecting particles: too, also. Higgins comes in. He takes off the hat and overcoat. Pickering comes in. He also takes off his hat and overcoat. (Shaw) He (James) was silent. Soames, too, was silent. (Galsworthy) 4. Negative particles: not, never. No, he was not afraid of that. (Galsworthy) She looked round her. Nothing — not a thing, no tiniest disturbance of her hall, nor of the dining room. (Galsworthy) I never spoke to him except to ask him to buy a flower off me. (Shaw) Some of the particles are polysemantic, for instance just, only. That’s just his way of talking. (Dreiser) (LIMITING PARTICLE) Why, I think, that’s a terrible price to ask for it, just awful. (Dreiser) (INTENSIFYING PARTICLE) French people only come to England to make money. (Galsworthy) (LIMITING PARTICLE) If only there were a joyful future to look forward to! (Galsworthy) (INTENSIFYING PARTICLE) Almost all the particles are homonymous with other parts of speech, chiefly with adverbs (simply), but also with conjunctions (but), pronouns (all), and adjectives (only). The particles else, solely, merely have no homonyms. Part II SYNTAX Chapter XV THE SIMPLE SENTENCE § 1. A sentence is a unit of speech whose grammatical structure conforms to the laws of the language and which serves as the chief means of conveying a thought. A sentence is not only a means of communicating something about reality but also a means of showing the speaker’s attitude to it. § 2. The classification of simple sentences is based on two principles: (A) according to the purpose of the utterance; (B) according to the structure. According to the purpose of the utterance we distinguish four kinds of sentences. 1. The declarative sentence. A declarative sentence states a fact in the affirmative or negative form. In a declarative sentence the subject precedes the predicate. It is generally pronounced with a falling intonation. Charles Dickens was born at Landport, Portsmouth. (Laing) рисунок They don’t want anything from us — not even our respect. (Douglas) There is a great difference between English and Russian negative sentences. Whereas in English the predicate of a sentence can have only one negation, in Russian it can have more than one. He does not go anywhere. He never goes anywhere. Он никуда не ходит. 2. The interrogative sentence. An interrogative sentence asks a question. It is formed by means of inversion, i. e. by placing the predicate (or part of it) before the subject (unless the subject of the interrogative sentence is an interrogative word, in which case there is no inversion; see Chapter XVI, § 3). There are four kinds of questions: (a) General questions requiring the answer yes or no and spoken with a rising intonation. They are formed by placing part of the predicate, i. e. the auxiliary or modal verb before the subject of the sentence. Do you like art? рисунок Can you speak English? If the predicate is expressed by the verbs to be or to have (the latter expressing possession) used in a simple tense form, the question is formed by placing the predicate before the subject. Is he at home? Have you many English books? Sometimes such questions have a negative form and express astonishment or doubt. Haven’t you seen him yet? In Russian the particles разве, неужелиare used in such questions. General questions are sometimes rhetoric questions, they do not require any answer, but are veiled statements expressing some kind of emotion. Can you commit a whole country to their own prisons? Will you erect a gibbet in every field and hang men like scarecrows? (Byron) (b) Special questions beginning with an interrogative word and spoken with a falling intonation. The order of words is the same as in general questions, but the interrogative word precedes the auxiliary verb. Where do you live? рисунок When the interrogative word is the subject of the interrogative sentence or an attribute to the subject, the order of words is that of a statement, i. e. no inversion is used. Who lives in this room? Whose pen is on the table? (c) Alternative questions, indicating choice and spoken with a rising intonation in the first part and a falling intonation in the second part. Do you live in town or in the country? рисунок (d) Disjunctive questions requiring the answer yes or no and consisting, of an affirmative statement followed by a negative question, or a negative statement followed by an affirmative question. The first part is spoken with a falling intonation and the second part with a rising intonation. You speak English, don’t you? рисунок You are not tired, are you? 3. The imperative sentence.1 1 See the formation of the Imperative Mood (Chapter VII, Mood). An imperative sentence serves to induce a person to do something, so it expresses a command, a request, an invitation, etc. Commands are characterized by a falling tone. Come to the blackboard! рисунок Stop talking! Requests and invitations are characterized by a rising intonation. Open the door, please! рисунок Do come to see me to-morrow! 4. The exclamatory sentence. An exclamatory sentence expresses some kind of emotion or feeling. It often begins with the words what and how, it is always in the declarative form, i. e. no inversion takes place. It is generally spoken with a falling intonation. What a lovely day it is! рисунок What fine weather! How wonderful! Beautiful! § 3. According to their structure simple sentences are divided into two-member and one-member sentences. A two-member sentence has two members — a subject and a predicate. If one of them is missing it can be easily understood from the context. Fleur had establishedimmediate contact with an architect. (Galsworthy) A two member sentence may be complete or incomplete. It is complete when it has a subject and a predicate. Young Jolyon could not help smiling. (Galsworthy) It is incomplete when one of the principal parts or both of them are missing, but can be easily understood from the context. Such sentences are called elliptical and are mostly used in colloquial speech and especially in dialogue. Best not to see her again. Best to forget all about her. (Abrahams) What were you doing? Drinking. (Shaw) Who does it for Mr. George? James, of course. (Galsworthy) Where were you yesterday? At the cinema. A one-member sentence is a sentence having only one member which is neither the subject nor the predicate. This does not mean, however, that the other member is missing, for the one member makes the sense complete. One-member sentences are generally used in descriptions and in emotional speech. If the main part of a one-member sentence is expressed by a noun, the sentence is called nominal. The noun may be modified by attributes, Dusk — of a summer night. (Dreiser) Freedom! Bells ringing out, flowers, kisses, wine. (Heym) The dull pain and the life slowly dripping out of him. (Heym) The main part of a one-member sentence is often expressed by an infinitive. No! To have his friendship, his admiration, but not at that price. (Galsworthy) To die out there — lonely, wanting them, wanting home! (Galsworthy) § 4. Simple sentences, both two-member and one-member, can be unextended and extended. A sentence consisting only of the primary or principal parts is called an unextended sentence. She is a student. Birds fly. Winter! An extended sentence is a sentence consisting of the subject, the predicate and one or more secondary parts (objects, attributes, or adverbial modifiers). The two native women stole furtive glances at Sarie. (Abrahams) The two white overseers... had gone into the hills with the natives to look for stray sheep. (Abrahams) PARTS OF THE SENTENCE In a sentence we distinguish the principal parts, secondary parts and independent elements. The principal parts of a sentence are the subject and the predicate. The secondary parts are the attribute, the object and the adverbial modifier. THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE SENTENCE THE SUBJECT § 5. The subject is the principal part of a two-member sentence which is grammatically independent of the other parts of the sentence and on which the second principal part (the predicate) is grammatically dependent, i. e. in most cases it agrees with the subject in number and person. N o t e. — There are cases, however, when there is no agreement in number (see Chapter XV, § 19–21). The subject can denote a living being, a lifeless thing or an idea. § 6. Ways of expressing the subject. The subject can be expressed by a single word or a group of words. Thus it can be expressed by: 1. A noun in the common case. The sulky waiter brought my tea. (Du Maurier) Marcellus slowly turned his head. (Douglas) N o t e. — Occasionally a noun in the possessive case is used as the subject of the sentence. Mrs. Gummidge’s was a fretful disposition. (Dickens) Oh, my dear Richard, Ada’s is a noble heart. (Dickens) 2. A pronoun — personal, demonstrative, defining, indefinite, negative, possessive, interrogative. After about an hour I heard Montgomery shouting my name. That set me thinking of my plan of action. (Wells) All were clad in the same soft, and yet strong silky material. (Wells) Everyone was silent for a minute. (Wells) Nothing was said on either side for a minute or two afterwards. (Dickens) Theirs is not a very comfortable lodging... (Dickens) Who tore this book? (Twain) The subject is often expressed by the indefinite pronoun one or the personal pronouns they, you, we, which refer not to any particular person or persons but to people in general. These sentences generally correspond to the same kind of sentences in Russian, but sometimes they are rendered by impersonal sentences, as will be seen in the examples given below. Yes, muttered Jon, life’s beastly short. One wants to live forever. (Galsworthy) Да, пробормотал Джон, жизнь чертовски коротка. Хочется жить вечно. A day is like a page in a book, one cannot read it without commas and periods. (Heym) День напоминает страницу книги, ее нельзя читать без запятых и точек. They say he’s clever — they all think they’re clever. (Galsworthy) Говорят, что он умный — все думают, что они умные. Howard, you introduce every statement with “they say”. I want to know who is “they”. (GowandD’Usseau) Говард, ты каждое предложение начинаешь с «говорят». Я хочу знать, кто говорит. N o t e. — They is used when the speaker is excluded, one when the speaker is included. There are some things you can’t talk to anyone about. (Voynich) Есть вещи, о которых никому не расскажешь. It was good to be alive. Say what you like you couldn’t beat it. (Galsworthy) Хорошо жить на свете. Что ни говори, а этого нельзя отрицать. Every pleasure is transitory. We can’t eat long. If we indulge in harmless fluids we get the dropsy, if in exciting liquids we get drunk. When I say “we”, my dear, I mean mankind in general. (Dickens) Всякое удовольствие преходяще. Нельзя есть долго. Если мы злоупотребляем безвредными напитками, мы заболеваем водянкой, если мы злоупотребляем спиртными напитками, мы пьянеем. Когда я говорю «мы», мой дорогой, я имею в виду человечество в целом. 3. A substantivized adjective or participle. The Privileged have seen that charming and instructive sight. (Galsworthy) The wounded were taken good care of. A numeral (cardinal or ordinal). Of course, the two were quite unable to do anything. (Wells) The first and fourth stood beside him in the water. (Wells) 5. An infinitive, an infinitive phrase or construction. To live is to work. To be a rich man, Lieutenant, is not always roses and beauty. (Heym) For him to come was impossible. 6. A gerund, a gerundial phrase or construction. Lying doesn’t go well with me. (Heym) Winning the war is what counts. (Heym) Annette’s being French might upset him a little. (Galsworthy) 7. Any part of speech used as a quotation. On is a preposition. No is his usual reply to any request. 8. A group of words which is one part of the sentence, i. e. a syntactically indivisible group. Yet at this very time their friend and defender is darkly groping towards the solution. (Fox) Here the subject represents one person. The needle and thread is lost. Here the needle and the thread are treated as one thing. This is not to be confused with homogeneous subjects where two persons or things are meant and consequently the predicate is in the plural. Mr. Pickwick alone was silent and reserved. Doubt and distrust were exhibited in his countenance. (Dickens) There are other kinds of syntactic units. There were a number of carved high back chairs. (Dreiser) There’s a lot of truth in that, of course. (London) 9. A quotation group. “I shan’t be able to give you very much,” he had said. “Perhaps this what’s-his-name will provide the cocoa.” (Galsworthy) N o t e. — There are sentences where the subject is. introduced by the construction there is, e. g. There is nothing on the table. In this case nothing is the subject and there is part of the predicate. § 7. It as the subject of the sentence. When the pronoun it is used as the subject of a sentence it may represent a living being or a thing: then it is a notional subject. Sometimes, however, it does not represent any living being or thing and performs a purely grammatical function: then it is a formal subject. A. When it is a notional subject the pronoun it has the following meanings: 1. It stands for a definite thing or some abstract idea — the personal it. The door opened. It was opened by a young girl of thirteen or fourteen. (Dickens) If this is a liberty, it isn’t going to mean a thing. (Heym) 2. It points out some person or thing expressed by a predicative noun, or it refers to the thought contained in a preceding statement, thus having a demonstrative meaning — the demonstrative it. It is John. It was a large room with a great window. (Dickens) Dick came home late, it provoked his father. (Lindsay) In the last two cases it is close to this and is usually translated into Russian by это. B. Sometimes the pronoun it is a formal subject, i, e. it does not represent any person or thing. Here we must distinguish: (1) the impersonal it; (2) the introductory or anticipatory it; (3) the emphatic it. 1. The impersonal it is used: (a) to denote natural phenomena (such as the state of the weather, etc.) or that which characterizes the environment. In such sentences the predicate is either a simple one, expressed by a verb denoting the state, of the weather, or a compound nominal one, with an adjective as predicative. It often rains in autumn. It is cold in winter. It is stuffy in here. It is delightfully quiet in the night. N o t e. — The state of the weather can also be expressed by sentences in which the subject denoting the state of things is introduced by the construction there is. In such sentences the noun introduced by the construction there is is the subject. There was a heavy frost last night. There was a fine rain falling over the trees, the flowers, and the people sitting on the benches in the garden. (b) to denote time and distance. It is five minutes past six. It is morning already. How far is it from your office to the bank? (Galsworthy) It is a long way to the station. N o t e. — Sentences with the impersonal it as subject very often correspond to Russian impersonal one-member sentences.
The following sentences, however, correspond to Russian two-member personal sentences:
2. The introductory or anticipatory it introduces the real subject. It’s no use disguising facts. It was curious to observe that child. N o t e. — Some grammarians treat this it as the real subject and the rest of the sentence as the predicate. 3. The emphatic it is used for emphasis. It was Winifred who went up to him. (Galsworthy) It was he who had brought back George to Amelia. (Thackeray) THE PREDICATE |