A Grammar of the English Language. Грамматика английского языка. A grammar of the english language
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§ 17. Adverbial clauses of concession. An adverbial clause of concession denotes the presence of some obstacle which nevertheless does not hinder the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of concession are introduced by the following conjunctions and connectives: though, although, as,l no matter how, however, whoever, whatever, whichever. In official style they may also be introduced by the conjunctions notwithstanding that, in spite-of the fact that. 1 The conjunction as introduces adverbial clauses of concession in which the predicative stands first. I enjoyed that day, though we travelled slowly, though it was cold, though it rained. (Ch. Bronte) Although the young man’s eyes remained upon him, he did not speak... (Cronin) Troubled as he was, he never exposed his difficulties to her. (Dreiser) However much we may differ on the question of metaphysics, I am convinced of your absolute integrity. (Cronin) He went forward to meet his uncle prepared to suppress the agitation he must feel, whatever news he was to hear. (Eliot) §18. Adverbial clauses of result. Adverbial clauses of result denote the result of the action expressed in the principal clause. Very often adverbial clauses of this type have an additional meaning of degree. Adverbial clauses of pure result are introduced by the conjunction so that; they are usually separated from the principal clause by a comma. Darkness had fallen and a keen blizzard was blowing, so that the streets were nearly deserted. (Conan Doyle) Adverbial clauses of result with an additional meaning of degree are introduced by the conjunction that; in these cases we find the adverb so or the demonstrative pronoun such in the principal clause. Such clauses are not separated from the principal clause by a comma. He is so weak physically that he can hardly move. (Shaw) Tom was in ecstasies — in such ecstasies that he even controlled his tongue and was silent. (Twain) § 19. Adverbial clauses of manner. Adverbial clauses of manner characterize in a general way the action expressed in the principal clause. They are usually introduced by the conjunction as. In adverbial clauses of manner the idea of comparison is often implied. ...she did exactly as he told her. (Hardy) Joe left the house as he had entered it... (Cronin) § 20. Adverbial clauses of comparison. Adverbial clauses of comparison denote an action with which the action of the principal clause is compared. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, as, as... as, not so... as, as if, as though. Mr. Direck’s broken Wrist healed sooner than he desired. (Wells) We were going up the road as fast as we could. (Hemingway) He was white and jaded, as if he had not slept for many nights. (Wells) She could see his lips moving, from time to time, as though he were talking to himself. (Cronin) N o t e. — Some grammarians number among complex sentences, containing an adverbial clause of comparison, sentences of the following type: The more he reflected on the idea the more he liked it. (Galsworthy) The nearer he drew to that grim citadel the faster his pulse raced. (Cronin) This way of analysis is open to objection on the ground that in sentences of this type it is impossible to point out the principal and the subordinate clause as, strictly speaking, here we have mutual subordination. § 21. Some of the conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses are polysemantic and can introduce different types of adverbial clauses. For instance, the conjunction as may introduce adverbial clauses of time, cause, manner, and comparison. As he spoke there was a sharp ring at the bell. (Conan Doyle) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME) As the morning was fine, and he had an hour on his hands, he crossed the river by the ferry, and strolled along a footpath through some meadows. (Dickens) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CAUSE) The dog did as he was ordered. (Dickens) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF MANNER) She (Lillian) saw now that she did not love him (Cowperwood) as some women love their husbands. (Dreiser) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF COMPARISON) The conjunction since introduces adverbial clauses of time and cause. It was a long time since I had written to the States... (Hemingway) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME) Since the lunchroom was full, she sat at our table, and, reached out for the bill of fare. (King) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CAUSE) The composite conjunction so that introduces adverbial clauses of result and purpose. They were rich and I was poor, so that it was no easy matter for me to follow them. (Conan Doyle) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF RESULT) I turned away, so that Frith should not see my face. (Du Maurier) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF PURPOSE) THE COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE A compound-complex sentence is a sentence consisting of two or more coordinate clauses one of which at least has one or several subordinate clauses. There was a song in every heart; and if the heart was young the music issued at the lips. (Twain) PARENTHETICAL CLAUSES Besides all the types of clauses mentioned above, there is a special type of clause called the parenthetical clause, as in the following examples: You are, I am afraid, far more urgently in need of medical advice than your daughter. (Collins) The next and last step in the investigation brought matters, as they say, to a crisis. (Collins) Her singing is something quite exceptional, I think. (Eliot) Chapter XVIII THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES § 1. The sequence of tenses is a certain dependence of the tense of the verb in a subordinate clause on that of the verb in the principal clause: if the verb in the principal clause is in one of the past tenses, a past tense (or future in the past) must be used in the subordinate clause. The rule is generally observed in object clauses (a more detailed treatment of the question will be found in § 7, 9, 10). I thought you had better sense. (Dreiser) I always thought it would come to this. N o t e. — It is implied in the rule of the sequence of tenses that if a present or future tense is used in the principal clause, any tense required by the sense can be used in the subordinate clause: I’ve seen which way the wind is blowing. (Dreiser) § 2. If the past action expressed in the subordinate clause is simultaneous with that expressed in the principal clause, the Past Indefinite or the Past Continuous is used in the subordinate clause: I thought you had more courage than this. (Dreiser) Я думал, что у вас больше мужества. Не looked at Cowperwood and saw at once... that the latter was preparing a big fight of some sort. (Dreiser) Он посмотрел на Каупервуда и сразу понял, что тот замышляет какой-то бой. If the past action expressed in the subordinate clause is prior to that expressed in the principal clause, the Past Perfect is used in the subordinate clause: He knew that she (Hetty) had not had time to read the letter. (Eliot) Он знал, что она еще не успела прочесть письмо. If the action expressed in the subordinate clause lasted a certain time before the action expressed in the principal clause, the Past Perfect Continuous or the Past Perfect Inclusive is used in the subordinate clause. He realized that the old life he had lived in that city since boyhood was ended. (Dreiser) Он понял, что та жизнь, которой он жил в этом городе с детства, окончилась. If the action expressed in the subordinate clause is posterior to that of the principal clause the Future in the Past is used. He knew they would read the book the following year. (FUTURE INDEFINITE IN THE PAST) He knew they would be reading when she came. (FUTURE CONTINUOUS IN THE PAST) He knew they would have read the book by the 1st of June. (FUTURE PERFECT IN THE PAST) Occasionally we find examples of should being used with the 3rd person and would with the 1st. This generally occurs when the speaker wants to preserve the same verb that was used by the original speaker. See! Here’s his writing; I made him put it down this morning when he told me he shouldn’t be back before I came here. (Dickens) He asked me if there wasn’t any hope that I would change. (Webster) § 3. If there are several subordinate clauses in a sentence, the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed in all of them. As the weeks went by... he began to believe that she had been able to think of her girlish fancy that Arthur was in love with her and would marry her as a folly of which she was timely cured. (Eliot) § 4. The rule of the sequence of tenses also holds good when a past tense is used in a subordinate clause to which other clauses are subordinated. She says he knew they would never return. (Bennett) He said he was sure you were in. § 5. It should be noted that the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed after verbals if they depend on a finite verb in the past tense: Cowperwood stood by his desk... wondering where he should get one hundred thousand dollars. (Dreiser) § 6. In Russian, the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause does not depend on the tense of the verb in the principal clause. TENSES USED IN ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AFTER A PAST TENSE IN THE PRINCIPAL CLAUSE
§ 7. The main sphere where the sequence of tenses is applied is object clauses. Harris said he knew what kind of place I meant. (Jerome) The sequence of tenses is not observed if the object clause expresses a general truth: The pupils knew that water consists of oxygen and hydrogen. In political language a present tense is often used in the object clause after a past tense in the principal clause. The speaker said that the peoples want peace. The sequence of tenses is often not observed if something is represented as habitual, customary, or characteristic. He asked the guard what time the train usually starts. (Curme) He did not seem to know that nettles sting. (Curme) § 8. In conventional direct speech the tenses are used according to the same principle which governs their uses in complex sentences with a principal clause and an object clause, though there is no principal clause. She put her hands up to her ears; it was because there were . some thin gold rings in them, which were also worth a little money. Yes, she could surely get some money for her ornaments. The landlord and landlady had been good to her; perhaps they would help her to get the money for these things. But this money would not keep her long; what should she do when it was gone? (Eliot) § 9. The sequence of tenses does not concern attributive relative clauses and adverbial clauses of cause, result, comparison, and concession (if the verb stands in the Indicative Mood). I didn’t go out of the shop door, but at the back door, which opens into a narrow alley. (Eliot) He didn’t go to the cinema last night because he will have an exam tomorrow. She worked so much yesterday that she is feeling quite weak today. Last year he worked more than he does this year. He insisted on going to the library yesterday, though he will not want the book today. § 10. The sequence of tenses is generally observed in subject clauses and predicative clauses: What he would do was of no importance. The question was what he would do next. It is also observed in appositive attributive clauses: She had a sickening sense that life would go on in this way. (Eliot) Chapter XIX INDIRECT SPEECH § 1. In contrast to direct speech, in which the exact words of the speaker are given, indirect speech is a form of utterance in which these words are reported. § 2. When direct speech is converted into indirect speech the following changes are introduced: 1. The quotation marks and the comma (or colon) are omitted. 2. If the speaker reports somebody else’s words the pronouns of the 1st person are replaced by those of the 3rd person; the pronouns of the 2nd by those of the 1st or 3rd. He said, “I am ready.” He said he was ready. If the speaker reports his or her own words, the pronouns are naturally not changed: I said, “I am ready.” I said I was ready. 3. If the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense, demonstrative pronouns and adverbials expressing nearness are replaced by words expressing distance: Here is replaced by there. This by that, these by those. Now by then, at that time (moment), or no adverb is used at all. To-day is replaced by that day. Yesterday by the day before or on the previous day. Ago by before. A year ago by a year before. Last night by the previous night.
If the speaker speaks in the same place and at the same time as the speaker whose words are reported, the demonstrative pronouns and adverbs are not changed. An hour ago he said he would come here tonight. I told him I wouldn’t give him an answer till tomorrow. (Wilde) 4. If the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense, the tenses are changed according to the rule of the sequence of tenses.
5. When sentences containing the Subjunctive Mood are converted into indirect speech the form of the verb usually remains unchanged. However, there is a case when, the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed: if we have the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may, may is changed into might if the verb in the principal clause stands in a past tense.
6. The verb introducing direct speech is replaced by another verb which shows whether the indirect speech is a statement, a question, an order (request) or an exclamation.
(For detailed treatment see § 3, 4, 5, 7.) 7. It should be borne in mind that there is a great difference between the style of direct and that of indirect speech. Direct speech is characterized by a certain looseness of structure and is more emotional than indirect speech. Indirect speech, on the contrary, is characterized by rigid logic of structure and terseness. Accordingly, if, for instance, no conjunctions expressing causal relations are to be found in direct speech, they must be introduced into indirect speech.
If certain words and phrases are repeated in direct speech, they must not be reproduced in indirect speech.
So and such are replaced by very, exceedingly etc. in exclamatory sentences.
Interjections must be replaced by suitable adverbial modifiers.
8. Must, as a rule, remains unchanged in indirect speech if it expresses advice (order) or a supposition bordering on assurance (должно быть).
She was informed that she must never again walk much. (Hardy) He said he was afraid you must think him ungrateful. (Marryat) Mr. Brownlow smiled and said that Mr. Grimwig was an old friend of his and he must not mind his being a little rough in his manners. (Dickens) Must is generally replaced by had to if it expresses necessity arising out of circumstances.
Must is generally replaced by was to if it expresses arrangement or a kind of order.
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