A Grammar of the English Language. Грамматика английского языка. A grammar of the english language

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§ 8. Attributive relative clauses can be restrictive and non-restrictive or descriptive.

1. An attributive relative restrictive clause restricts the meaning of the antecedent. It cannot be removed without destroying the meaning of the sentence. It is not separated by a comma, from the principal clause because of its close connection with it. Attributive relative restrictive clauses are introduced by:

(a) relative pronouns (who, whose, which, that, as¹ );

(b) relative adverbs (where, when);

(c) asyndetically.
¹ As introduces attributive clauses when the demonstrative pronoun such is used in the principal clause.
You could not but feel sympathy for a man who took so much delight in

simple things. (Maugham)

...but there is no private life which has not been determined by a wider, public

life. (Eliot)

All that could be done had been done. (Dreiser)

He sang a loud song... such a song as the Spanish wagoneers sing in Algeria.

(Hichens)

And he is now come to that stage of life when a man like him should enter

into public affairs. (Eliot)

They spoke no more all the way back to the lodging where Fanny and her

uncle lived. (Dickens)

There was simply nothing else he could do. (Coppard)

I think my father is the best man I have ever known. (Shaw)
2. An attributive relative non-restrictive clause does not restrict the meaning of the antecedent; it gives some additional information about it. It can be left out without destroying the meaning of the sentence. As the connection between the principal clause and the attributive non-restrictive clause is loose, they are often separated by a comma.

Attributive relative non-restrictive clauses are in most cases introduced syndetically by means of:

(a) relative pronouns (who, which);

(b) relative adverbs (where, when).
Mr. Prusty, who kept no assistant, slowly got off his stool. (Cronin)

She uttered a wild scream, which in its heart-rending intensity seemed to echo

for miles. (Hardy)

He went in alone to the dining-room where the table was laid for one.

(Cronin)
The relative pronoun that is hardly ever used to introduce an attributive relative non-restrictive clause.
He had emotion, fire, longings, that were concealed behind a wall of reserve.

(Dreiser)
A variant of the attributive non-restrictive clause is the continuative clause, whose antecedent is not one word but a whole clause. Continuative clauses are always separated from the principal clause by a comma.

A continuative clause is introduced by the relative pronoun which, rendered in Russian by the pronoun что.
Mr. Manston was not indoors, which was a relief to her. (Hardy)

But to-day... he had slept only in snatches, which was worse than not sleeping

at all. (Cronin)

For this purpose they probably lowered the bridge, which can be done quite

noiselessly. (Conan Doyle)
N o t e. — The connection between the attributive continuative clause and the

principal clause is so loose that it is doubtful whether we have here a

subordinate or a coordinate clause; it may be considered a borderline case

between subordination and coordination.
§ 9. Attributive appositive clauses.

Attributive appositive clauses disclose the meaning of the antecedent, which is expressed by an abstract noun. An attributive appositive clause is not separated from the principal clause by a comma.

Appositive clauses are chiefly introduced by the conjunction that, occasionally by the conjunction whether or by the adverbs how and why. They are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically.
He stopped in the hope that she would speak. (Dickens)

And then she had a nightmare conviction that she’d lost her sense of direction

and was going the wrong way. (Lindsay)

I have a presentiment that he is bringing trouble and misery with him into the

house. (Collins)

With his former doubt whether this dry hard personage were quite in earnest,

Clennam again turned his eyes attentively upon his face. (Dickens)

There was no reason why she should not read it (the book). (Hichens)

Thus to Cytherea and Owen Gray the question how their lives would end

seemed the deepest of possible enigmas. (Hardy)
§ 10. The use of relative pronouns in attributive relative clauses.

As has already been stated, attributive relative clauses are introduced by the following relative pronouns: who, which, that, as. In using these pronouns the following rules should be observed:

1. If the antecedent is a noun denoting a living being, who is mostly used.
Kate turned to the general, who was near her, his face expressionless, yet

alert. (Lawrence)
2. If the antecedent is a noun denoting an inanimate object, wwhich is mostly used.
In this room, which was never used, a light was burning. (Dickens)

The castle, which stood on the highest platform of the clustered hills, was

built of rough-hewn limestone. (Eliot)
3. The pronoun that may be used both when the antecedent is a noun denoting a living being and when it is a noun denoting an inanimate object. But it should be noted that the use of this pronoun in attributive clauses is limited; it is chiefly used in the following cases:

(a) if the antecedent is the pronoun all, everything or nothing.
All that she dreams comes true. (Dickens)

In a word, everything that goes to make life precious, that boy had. (Twain)
(b) if the antecedent is modified by an adjective in the superlative degree, by the adjective only, or by the indefinite pronoun any.
The door opened, and there entered to us, quietly, the most remarkable-l

ooking man that I had ever seen. (Collins)

The Moonstone was the only object that interested him in the smallest degree.

(Collins)

Any evil that people say of him is false. (Eliot)
N o t e. — In these cases (a, b) the attributive clause may be connected with

the principal clause asyndetically.
Time is all I want. (Dreiser)

Everything I could do to free myself came into my mind... (Eliot)

It was the worst Sunday he had spent in his life. (Dreiser)

I think she is the only really happy woman I have ever met with. (Collins)
4. If the antecedent is a noun modified by the demonstrative pronoun such the relative pronoun as is used.
For on the evening appointed for the Vauxhall party ... there came on such a

thunderstorm as only happens on Vauxhall nights, and as obliged the young

people, perforce, to remain at home. (Thackeray)
§11. Adverbial clauses.

An adverbial clause performs the function of an adverbial modifier. It can modify a verb, an adjective or an adverb in the principal clause.
He stopped as Kravat came rushing out. (Heym)

He was getting on better than he’d expected. (Lindsay)

Frank... returned to the auction room as fast as his legs would carry him.

(Dreiser)
According to their meaning we distinguish the following kinds of adverbial clauses: adverbial clauses of time, place, cause (reason), purpose, condition, concession, result, manner, and comparison.

Adverbial clauses are joined to the principal clause by means of subordinating conjunctions; they are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically except sometimes adverbial clauses of condition.

An adverbial clause may precede the clause to which it is subordinated or follow it. In the first case it is separated from the principal clause by a comma, in the second, as a rule, no comma is used. An adverbial clause may also interrupt the principal clause, in which case a comma is used at the beginning and at the end of it.
When things are at the worst, they’re sure to mend. (Collins)

He was sipping the whisky and soda when she returned. (Cronin)

The first words, when we had taken our seats, were spoken by my lady.

(Collins)
If we have two or more homogeneous adverbial clauses they are separated from each other by a comma.
He (Oliver) was still the same gentle, attached, affectionate creature that he

had teen when pain and suffering had wasted his strength, and when he was

dependent for every slight attention and comfort on those who tended him.

(Dickens)
§ 12. Adverbial clauses of time.

An adverbial clause of time shows the time of the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of time are introduced by the following conjunctions: when, while, whenever (когда бы ни), as, till, until, as soon as, as long as, since, after, before, now that (теперь, когда).
My mother died when I was eight years old... (Eliot)

...we must strike while the iron’s hot. (Galsworthy)

I shall hope to visit you whenever I happen to be in London. (Collins)

There was still a gleam of sunset in the west as he strolled along. (Cronin)

Jan waved till the taxi disappeared round the bend in the road. (Cusack)

After this, they conversed on different subjects until they arrived at their

journey’s end. (Dickens)

But as soon as I saw Susan I stopped noticing my surroundings. (Braine)

You can stay here as long as you want. (Hemingway)

She (June) had given him nothing of her company for a long time past, not in

fact, since she had become engaged to Bosinney. (Galsworthy)

There was scarcely time for him to swallow a cup of tea in the refreshment

room before the southbound train was signalled. (Cronin)

This is the claim I make on you, now that we have found each other. (Eliot)
In some cases an adverbial clause of time introduced by the conjunction as has the meaning of the gradual development of a process.
As dark night drew on, the sea roughened. (Ch. Bronte)
Adverbial clauses in sentences of the following type are also clauses of time:
Scarcely had his hands touched her head, when she sighed deeply. (London)

Hardly had they entered the house, when a violent thunderstorm broke out.

No sooner had I wiped one salt drop from my cheek, than another followed.

(Ch. Bronte)
The peculiarity of such sentences is that the conjunctions when and than introducing adverbial clauses of time are correlated with the adverbs scarcely, hardly and no sooner in the principal clause.
N o t e 1. — The conjunction when introducing adverbial clauses of time

should not be confused with the adverb when introducing subject clauses,

predicative clauses, object clauses, and attributive relative clauses. Compare

the following examples:
And people love their homes, even when things are tough. (Gow and

D’Usseau) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME)

The next thing to discover is when the paint was last seen without that smear.

(Collins) (PREDICATIVE CLAUSE)

Nothing told her when the eyes of her friend were for an instant fixed upon

her, when the mind of her friend for a moment wondered at the strange, new

look in her face. (Hichens) (OBJECT CLAUSE)

There were moments when I felt all the misery of my friendlessness, all the

peril of my dreadful responsibility. (Collins) (ATTRIBUTIVE RELATIVE

CLAUSE)
N o t e 2. — Adverbial clauses of time introduced by the subordinating

conjunction while should not be confused with independent clauses introduced

by the coordinating conjunction while.
There was a pause while he raised his cup and drank some tea. (Cronin)

(ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME)

His face was disturbed and troubled, while his clothes were disarranged and

untidy. (Conan Doyle) (INDEPENDENT CLAUSE)
§ 13. Adverbial clauses of place.

An adverbial clause of place shows the place of the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of place are introduced by the conjunctions where and wherever (где бы ни, куда бы ни).
...I am quite comfortable where I am. (Wilde)

I looked where she pointed. (Collins)

...the street singers and players were making their nightly pilgrimage, pausing,

wherever they saw a lighted window or a dark figure on a balcony. (Hichens)
N o t e. — One should not confuse the conjunction where introducing

adverbial clauses of place with the adverb where introducing subject clauses,

predicative clauses, object clauses, and attributive relative clauses.
Deronda placed himself where he could see her... (Eliot) (ADVERBIAL

CLAUSE OF PLACE)

This must be where my sister lives. This is where she came for a temporary

lodging, soon after father’s death. (Dickens) (PREDICATIVE CLAUSE)

Artois wondered where they were going. (Hichens)(OBJECT CLAUSE)

He turned immediately towards the hearth where Silas Marner sat lulling the

child. (Eliot) (ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE)
§ 14. Adverbial clauses of cause.

An adverbial clause of cause (reason) shows the cause of, the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of cause are introduced by the conjunctions as, because, since, for fear (that); in official style they may also be introduced by the conjunctions on the ground that, for the reason that and some others.
As he had a liking for the spot, he seldom let a week pass without paying it a

visit. (Dickens)

Letters were infrequent in his world and not very welcome because more

often than not they contained bad news. (Priestley)

Since he had a certain talent for composition, his English master encouraged

him to write little pieces... for the college magazine. (Cronin)

He is suspicious and jealous for fear anyone else might want to share in his

power. (Lawrence)
§ 15. Adverbial clauses of purpose.

Adverbial clauses of purpose state the purpose of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, in order that, so that, lest (чтобы не) and some others.
She kept her back to the window that he might not see her rising colour.

(Hardy)

Wounds sometimes must be opened in order that they may be healed.

(Trollope)

I crouched against the wall of the gallery so that I should not be seen. (Du

Maurier)

...he made all these exclamations in a carefully suppressed voice, lest the valet

should overhear anything. (Dickens)
§ 16. Adverbial clauses of condition.

Adverbial clauses of condition state the condition which is necessary for the realization of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions if, unless (если не), suppose, in case (в случае если), on condition that, provided (при условии что), etc.
If he is not here by the end of the week, I shall go after him. (Austen)

I do not wish you to be my wife unless you are bound to me by love.

(Trollope)

... my father, just at the last, consented to let him teach you, on condition that

he never attempted to see your mother. (Voyhich)

I will do anything you wish, my brother, provided it lies in my power.

(Dickens)
Adverbial clauses of condition can be joined to the principal clause asyndetically. In this case we find inversion in the subordinate clause.
...should Frank marry to-morrow, I shall have no ground for blaming him.

(Trollope)

Had she been an Englishwoman, Artois would have guessed her to be near

fifty. (Hichens)