A Grammar of the English Language. Грамматика английского языка. A grammar of the english language
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§ 1. A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. A clause is part of a sentence which has a subject and a predicate of its own. In a compound sentence the clauses may be connected: (a) syndetically, i. e. by means of coordinating conjunctions (and, or, else, but, etc.) or conjunctive adverbs (otherwise, however, nevertheless, yet, still, therefore, etc.). The darkness was thinning, but the street was still dimly lighted. (Lindsay) He knew there were excuses for his father, yet he felt sick at heart. (Cronln) (b) asyndetically, i. e. without a conjunction or conjunctive adverb. The rain fell softly, the house was quiet. (Collins) The month was July, the morning fine, the glass-door stood ajar, through it played a fresh breeze... (Ch. Bronte) He uttered no other words of greeting; there was too strong a rush of mutual consciousness. (Eliot) § 2. We can distinguish the following types of coordination: 1. Copulative coordination (соединительная связь), expressed by the conjunctions and, nor, neither ... nor, not only ... but (also). With the help of these conjunctions the statement expressed in one clause is simply added to that expressed in another. It was a nice little place and Mr. and Mrs. Witla were rather proud of it. (Dreiser) Mr. Home did not lift his eyes from his breakfast-plate for about two minutes, nor did he speak. (Ch. Bronte) Not only did he speak more correctly, but he spoke more easily, and there were many new words in his vocabulary. (London) 2. Disjunctive coordination (разделительная связь) expressed by the conjunctions or, else, or else, either... or, and the conjunctive adverb otherwise. By these a choice is offered between the statements expressed in two clauses. He knew it to be nonsense or it would have frightened him. (Galsworthy) Don’t come near me with that look else I’ll knock you down. (Eliot) ...don’t fret, and don’t expect too much of him, or else he will feel you to be troublesome... (Ch. Bronte) ...either our union must be consecrated and, sealed by marriage or it cannot exist. (Ch. Bronte) A painter has to be forbidding, Dad, otherwise people would think he was cadging. (Galsworthy) 3. Adversative coordination (противительная связь) expressed by the conjunctions but, while,1 whereas and the conjunctive adverbs nevertheless, still, yet. These are conjunctions and adverbs connecting two clauses contrasting in meaning. 1 The conjunction while is not always coordinating. It may be a subordinating conjunction introducing adverbial clauses of time. The room was dark, but the street was lighter because of its lamps. (Dickens) He had a glass eye which remained stationary, while the other eye looked at Reinhardt. (Heym) The old school-room was now a sitting room... whereas one of the old nurseries was now the modern school-room. (Trollope) I was not unhappy, not much afraid, yet I wept. (Ch. Bronte) 4. Causative-consecutive coordination (причинно-следственная связь) expressed by the conjunctions for, so and the conjunctive adverbs therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence. For introduces coordinate clauses explaining the preceding statement. Therefore, so, consequently, hence, accordingly introduce coordinate clauses denoting cause, consequence and result.2 2 Cause, consequence and result may also be expressed by subordinate clauses, introduced by subordinating conjunctions. There was something amiss with Mr. Lightwood, for he was strangely grave and looked ill. (Dickens) After all, the two of them belonged to the same trade, so talk was easy and happy between them. (Priestley) Hers (Lillian’s) was not a soul that ever loved passionately, hence she could not suffer passionately. (Dreiser) N o t e. — There are cases when the conjunction for expresses relations approaching those of subordination, i. e. when it introduces a clause showing the reason of the action expressed in the preceding clause. In these cases the conjunction for is very close in meaning to the conjunction because. She (Lillian) was not helpless, for she had money of her own. (Dreiser) But even here for is not a subordinating conjunction, as the connection between the clause it introduces and the preceding clause is loose: a certain fact is stated and then, as it were on second thought, another, statement with a causal meaning is added. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE § 3. A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. N о t e. — This definition is true, however, only in a general sense. In an exact sense there is often no principal clause; this is the case with complex sentences containing a subject clause or a predicative clause. (For a detailed treatment of this phenomenon see § 4, 5.) Clauses in a complex sentence may be linked in two ways: 1. Syndetically, i. e. by means of subordinating conjunctions or connectives. There is a difference between a conjunction and a connective. A conjunction only serves as a formal element connecting separate clauses, whereas a connective serves as a connecting link and has at the same time a syntactic function in the subordinate clause it introduces. More and more, she became convinced that some misfortune had overtaken Paul. (Cronin) (CONJUNCTION) All that he had sought for and achieved seemed suddenly to have no meaning. (Cronin) (CONNECTIVE) 2. Asyndetically, i. e. without a conjunction or connective. I wish you had come earlier. (Heym) Circumstances try the metal a man is really made of. (Collins) A subordinate clause may follow, precede, or interrupt the principal clause. His steps quickened as he set out for the hotel. (Cronin) As the family had no visitors that day, its four members dined alone together. (Dickens) It was dull and dreary enough, when the long summer evening closed in, on that Saturday night. (Collins) A complex sentence may contain two or more homogeneous clauses coordinated with each other. They were all obstinately of opinion that the poor girl had stolen the moonstone, and that she had destroyed herself in terror of being found out. (Collins) What Mr. Pancks knew about the Dorrit family, what more he really wanted to find out, and why he should trouble his busy head about them at all, were questions that often perplexed him. (Dickens) A subordinate clause may be subordinated to the principal clause or to another subordinate clause. Accordingly we distinguish subordinate clauses of the first, second, third, etc. degree of subordination. He never asked why Erik was giving up academic work. (Wilson) I don’t mind making the admission... that there are certain forms of so-called humor, or, at least, fun, which I am quite unable to appreciate. (Leacock) I think I have noticed that they have an inconsistent way of speaking about her, as if she had made some great self-interested success in marrying Mr. Gowan... (Dickens) According to their grammatical function subordinate clauses are divided into subject, predicative, attributive, object, and adverbial clauses. § 4. Subject clauses perform the function of subject to the predicate of the principal clause. Attention should be paid to the peculiar structure of the principal clause, which in this case has no subject, the subordinate clause serving as such. What I want to do is to save us both. (Dreiser) If a subject clause follows the principal clause the so-called introductory it is used in the principal clause. It was always possible that they might encounter some one. (Dreiser) N o t e. — There is another view of the analysis of sentences of this type, according to which it is the subject of the principal clause, and the subordinate clause is a predicative clause. Subject clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following way’s; (a) by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether. It was unfortunate that the patient was brought in during the evening. (Heym) Whether she was determined to bring matters to a crisis, or whether she was prompted by some private sign from Mr. Buff, is more than I can tell. (Collins) (b) by means of the connectives who, which, what, whoever, whatever (conjunctive pronouns); where, when, how, why (conjunctive adverbs). What was done could not be undone. (Hardy) Whatever I can do for you will be nothing but paying a debt... (Eliot) It’s a grand thing when you see the working class in action. (Lindsay) (c) asyndetically. It is a pity her brother should be quite a stranger to her. (Eliot) Subject clauses are not separated from the principal clause by a comma except when we have two or more subject clauses coordinated with each other. Who her mother was, and how she came to die in that forlorn-ness, were questions that often pressed on Eppie’s mind. (Eliot) It was plain, pitiably plain, that he was aware of his own defect of memory, and that he was bent on hiding it from the observation of his friends. (Collins) N o t e. — Formally it is possible to distinguish a subject clause in sentences with an emphatic construction; however, in meaning they are equivalent to simple sentences. It was his uncle who spoke first. (Priestley) It was there that the offensive was to begin. (Hemingway) It was very seldom that I uttered more than monosyllables in Dr. John’s presence. (Ch. Bronte) It was not till she was quite close that he could believe her to be Tess. (Hardy) § 5. Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicative. The peculiarity of complex sentences with a predicative clause is that in the principal clause we find only part of the predicate, i. e. a link verb, which together with the predicative clause forms a compound nominal predicate. Predicative clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following ways: (a) by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether, as if. Our attitude simply is that facts are facts. (Leacock) The thing to be settle on now is whether anything can be done to save him. (Dreiser) It was as if these men and women had matured. (Heym) It seems as if all these years I’ve been living under false pretences. (Cronin) I felt as if death had laid a hand on me. (Eliot) (b) by means of the connectives who, which, what (conjunctive pronouns), where, when, how, why (conjunctive adverbs). But this time, just about sunset, was always what I loved best. (Eliot) The question was how was the matter to be kept quiet. (Dreiser) That was why you were not one bit frightened. (Eliot) (c) asyndetically. Another thing... was they had nurse Andrews staying on with them that week. (Mansfield) As a rule predicative clauses are not separated by a comma; a comma is used if we have two or more predicative clauses coordinated with each other. But the chief reason is, that Mirah will desire to watch over you, and that you ought to give her the guardianship of a brother’s presence. (Eliot) N o t e. — In a sentence containing a subject clause and a predicative clause the principal clause is represented only by the link verb. What we want to know is what the French are going to do now. (Greene) § 6. Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate-verb of the principal clause. I don’t know what you are talking about. (Gow and D’Ussean) An object clause may also refer to a non-finite form of the verb, to an adjective, or to a word belonging to the part of speech expressing state. I formed the habit of calling in on him in the evening to discuss what I had heard. (Leacock) I ventured on asking why he was in such a hurry to get back to town. (Collins) Mr. Bruff folded up the will, and then looked my way apparently wondering whether I did or did not mean to leave him alone with my aunt. (Collins) Soames averted his eyes and became conscious that Winifred and he were alone. (Galsworthy) They were not sure what the morrow would bring forth. (Dreiser) The poor girl is anxious that you should be at her wedding. (Trollope) She was aware that someone else was there. (Eliot) Object clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following ways: (a) by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether. You know quite well, Ariadne, that I have not an ounce of pettishness in my disposition. (Shaw) Jane... wondered if Brian and Margaret were really suited for one another. (Lindsay) Time will show whether I am right or wrong. (Collins) (b) by means of the connectives who, which, what, whatever, whoever, whichever (conjunctive pronouns); where, when, how, why (conjunctive adverbs). I’ll do just what I say. (Dreiser) I half rose, and advanced my head to see how she was occupied. (Ch. Bronte) He wondered why he should look back... (Wilson) I don’t know where he developed his prose style, probably in the best of schools, the open air. (Nichols) (c) asyndetically. He said there was nothing much the matter with me. (Maxwell) An object clause may be introduced by a preposition. I am always ready to listen to whatever you may wish to disclose. (Eliot) I found it hard to keep my mind on what the colonel was saying. (Greene) An object clause is sometimes preceded by the introductory object it. I insist upon it that you tell me what you mean. (Trollope) As a rule object clauses are not separated by a comma from the principal clause. A comma may or may not be used if the object clause precedes the principal clause. What I used not to like, I long for now. (Eliot) What happened then I do not know. (Conan Doyle) If we have two or more homogeneous object clauses they are separated from each other by a comma. I can’t tell you what tricks they performed, or how they did it. (Collins) N o t e. — A sentence containing direct speech consists of two independent, clauses. “I don’t deserve to be mocked at,” she said in a stifled voice. (Lindsay) “Well,” I thought, “at any rate, judging by the smell, the food must be good.” (Mansfield) § 7. Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun (pronoun) in the principal clause. This noun or pronoun is called the antecedent of the clause. According to their meaning and the way they are connected with the principal clause attributive clauses are divided into relative and appositive ones. Attributive relative clauses qualify the antecedent, whereas attributive appositive clauses disclose its meaning. The facts those men were so eager to know had been visible, tangible, open to the senses. (Conrad) (ATTRIBUTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE) The fortunate fact that the rector’s letter did not require an immediate answer would give him time to consider. (Hardy) (ATTRIBUTIVE APPOSITIVE CLAUSE) Attributive relative clauses are joined to the principal clause syndetically — by means of connectives, and asyndetically; attributive appositive clauses only syndetically — by means of conjunctions. |