A Grammar of the English Language. Грамматика английского языка. A grammar of the english language
 Скачать 2.09 Mb.
|
|
§ 20. The formation of the Past Perfect. 1. The Past Perfect is formed by means of the Past Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb. 2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb.
3. The contracted affirmative forms are: I’d written We’d written The contracted negative forms are: I hadn’t written We hadn’t written 4. The negative-interrogative forms are: {Had he not written? Hadn’t he written? {Had you not written? Hadn’t you. written? § 21. The use of the Past Perfect. 1. The Past Perfect denotes an action completed before a certain moment in the past. The moment may be indicated by another past action expressed by a verb in the Past Indefinite or by an adverbial phrase. They had walked only a few steps when a second group of tanks drew up on the side road. (Heym) After she had cried out, she felt easier. (Heym) Fortunately the rain had stopped before we started. (Bennett) By this time Cowperwood had written Aileen under no circumstances to try to see him. (Dreiser) The clock had not struck when he reached Gray’s Inn. (Dickens) The definite moment can be understood from the situation. The Squire had laid down his knife and fork, and was staring at his son in amazement. (Eliot) The definite moment need not necessarily be expressed in the same sentence as the action expressed by the Past Perfect. Everybody noticed how sad she was the whole evening. She had got an unpleasant letter. (Collins) The Past Perfect is used with the conjunctions hardly... when, scarcely... when, no sooner... than. They had no sooner arrived at this point than a most violent and startling knocking was heard. (Jerome) Nell had scarcely settled herself on a little heap of straw in the corner when she fell asleep. (Dickens) For the sake of emphasis the word order may be inverted. No sooner had she laid herself down than she heard the prolonged trill of the front-door bell. (Bennett) The Past Perfect is frequently used with the adverbs just, already, yet. Elsie, who had not yet assumed the white cap, was sweeping the stairs. (Bennett) 2. Sometimes the Past Perfect does not denote priority but only the completion of the action. He waited until she had found the latch-key and opened the door. (Bennett) The Squire was purple with anger before his son had done speaking. (Eliot) The Past Perfect is rendered in Russian by the past perfective By this time Cowperwood had written Aileen under no circumstances to try to see him. (Dreiser) К этому времени Каупервуд написал Эйлин, чтобы она ни в коем случае не пыталась с ним встретиться. 3. The Past Perfect is used to denote an action which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at that moment. This use is called the Past Perfect Inclusive. The starting point or the whole period of duration of the action is indicated. To indicate the starting point the preposition since is used, to indicate the whole period of duration for is used. The Past Perfect Inclusive is used: (a) with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form. Examination convinced him that the deacon was dead — had been dead for some time. (Eliot) (b) in negative sentences. (In this case the Past Perfect Continuous is also possible, but not common. See § 32.) Those two had not spoken to each other for three days and were in a state of rage. (Bennett) (c) with non-terminative verbs such as to work, to live, to study, to teach, to travel, to last etc. (In this case the Past Perfect Continuous is possible. See § 32.) The ride had lasted about ten minutes, when the truck suddenly swerved to a halt. (Heym) The Past Perfect Inclusive is generally rendered in Russian by the past perfective. He had not written a line since he arrived. Он не написал ни строчки с тех пор, как приехал. § 22. The Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect. 1. The Past Perfect is not used to denote a succession of actions. In this case the Past Indefinite is used. The Past Indefinite is used with the conjunctions after, before, when if the relation between the actions approaches succession, i. e. when the idea of completion is of no importance. He went on with his work after he had a short rest. He had a short rest before he went on with his work. When I wrote the letter, I posted it. 2. Verbs of motion and sense perception such as to come, to arrive, to return, to see, to hear, in adverbial clauses of time are generally used in the Past Indefinite and not in the Past Perfect. The actions are practically simultaneous. When he (Val) came down... he found his mother scrupulous in a low evening dress... (Galsworthy) When he heard the first line of the poem, he recognized it at once. When the completion of the action is emphasized the Past Perfect is used. He knew the poem by heart when he had heard it several times. THE FUTURE PERFECT § 23. The formation of the Future Perfect. 1. The Future Perfect is formed by means of the Future Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb. 2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.
3. The contracted affirmative forms are: I’ll have worked He’ll have worked The contracted negative forms are: I shan’t have worked He won’t have worked 4. The negative-interrogative forms are: {Will he not have worked? Won’t he have worked? {Shall we not have worked? Shan’t we have worked? § 24. The use of the Future Perfect. 1. The Future Perfect denotes an action completed before a definite moment in the future. I shall be back by six, and I hope you will have had a good sleep by that time. (Marryat) 2. The Future Perfect can denote an action which will begin before a definite moment in the future, will continue up to that moment and will be going on at that moment. This use of the Future Perfect is called the Future Perfect Inclusive. The Future Perfect Inclusive is used with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form, in negative sentences, with non-terminative verbs such as to work, to live, to study, to teach etc. I shall have been a teacher for 20 years by next May. I shall have worked as a teacher for 20 years by next May. THE FUTURE PERFECT IN THE PAST § 25. The formation of the Future Perfect in the Past. 1. The Future Perfect in the Past is formed by means of the Future Indefinite in the Past of the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb. 2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.
3. The contracted affirmative forms, are: I’d have worked He’d have worked The contracted negative forms are: I shouldn’t have worked He wouldn’t have worked 4. The negative-interrogative forms are: {Should I not have worked? Shouldn’t I have worked? {Would he not have worked? Wouldn’t he have worked? § 26. The use of the Future Perfect in the Past. The Future Perfect in the Past is used to denote an action completed before a definite moment which was future from the point of view of the past. I wondered whether they would have reached the place by noon. (For detailed treatment see Chapter XVIII.) THE PERFECT CONTINUOUS FORM The Perfect Continuous form denotes an action in progress, whose duration before a definite moment in the present, past or future is expressed. It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in one of the perfect tenses and Participle I of the notional verb. THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS § 27. The formation of the Present Perfect Continuous. 1. The Present Perfect Continuous is formed by means of the Present Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb. 2.In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.
3. The contracted affirmative forms are: I’ve been working He’s been working You’ve been working The contracted negative forms are: I haven’t been working He hasn’t been working We haven’t been working 4. The negative-interrogative forms are: {Has he not been working? Hasn’t he been working? {Have you not been working? Haven’t you been working? § 28. The use оf the Present Perfect Continuous. We distinguish two uses of the Present Perfect Continuous: the Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive. 1. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive is used to denote an action which began in the past, has been going on up to the present and is still going on. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive is generally used with since (denoting the starting point of the action), for (denoting the whole period of duration), these two days, etc. (If the conjunction since introduces a clause, the verb in this clause is in the Past Indefinite.) I have been looking out for your white dress for the last ten minutes. (Bennett) Ever since I saw you last I have been thinking, thinking. (Dreiser) As has been stated above (see § 18, 3) the Present Perfect Inclusive is used to denote an action which began in the past, has been going on up to the present and is still going on with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form, in negative sentences and with certain non-terminative verbs. With verbs not admitting of the Continuous form the Present Perfect Inclusive is the only tense possible. N o t e. — In colloquial English the verbs to want and to wish are often to be found in the Perfect Continuous form, though, as stated above, they are not used in the Continuous form. I have been wishing to speak to you ever since you returned. (Collins) With verbs in the negative form the Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive can be used, but it is far less common than the Present Perfect Inclusive. With certain non-terminative verbs both the Present Perfect Inclusive and the Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive are used. We have worked at the problem for several months. (The fact is emphasized.) We have been working and working at the problem for months and I don’t think we are likely to solve it. (Locke) (The process is emphasized.) The Present Perfect Continuous’ Inclusive is rendered in Russian by the present: I have been teaching at this school for 20 years. Я преподаю в этой школе 20 лет. 2. The Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive denotes an action which was recently in progress but is no longer going on at the present moment. You are not well to-day. You look distressed. You have been weeping. (Dickens) The Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive is used to express repeated actions in the past. How have you been spending your money? I have been buying pictures. (Locke) I have been getting letters from him. The Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive is often used with an emotional colouring. I suppose you have been telling lies again. (Marryat) The Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive is rendered in Russian by the past imperfective. Your eyes are red. You have been crying. У вас покраснели глаза. Вы плакали. § 29. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Present Continuous. Students should take care not to mix up the Present Perfect Continuous and the Present Continuous: the Present Continuous is used to denote an action going on at the present moment, no previous duration is expressed. The Present Perfect Continuous Inclusive is used when the previous duration of the action is expressed. I am reading Dombey and Son. I have been reading Dombey and Son for three days. There is no difference in the translation: Я читаю роман «Домби и сын». Я читаю роман «Домби и сын» три дня. § 30. The Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive. The Present Perfect denotes a completed action while with the Present Perfect Continuous Exclusive there is an implication of incompleteness. He has made some experiments. Он сделал несколько опытов. He has been making experiments. Он делал опыты. Why are your lips black? I have been eating blackberries. I have eaten a whole plateful. Я ел чернику. Я съел целую тарелку. She is walking up and down the room thinking of the letter she has been writing and wondering how she should finish it. She is going to post the letter she has just written. THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS § 31. The formation of the Past Perfect Continuous. 1. The Past Perfect Continuous is formed by means of the Past Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb. 2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.
3. The contracted affirmative forms are: I’d been writing She’d been writing The contracted negative forms are: I hadn’t been writing We hadn’t been writing 4. The negative-interrogative forms are: {Had he not been writing? Hadn’t he been writing? {Had you not been writing? Hadn’t you been writing? § 32. The use of the Past Perfect Continuous. We distinguish two uses of the Past Perfect Continuous: the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive. 1. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive denotes an action which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at that moment. Either the starting point of the action is indicated or the whole period of duration. The preposition for is used to denote the whole period of duration. Since is used to indicate the starting point of the action. We could not go out because it had been raining since early morning. We could not go out because it had been raining for two hours. He had been entertaining at restaurants for thirty years and he knew how to assure the smooth passage of the meal. (Bennett) As has been stated above (see § 21), the Past Perfect Inclusive is used to express an action which began before a definite moment in the past, continued up to that moment and was still going on at that moment, with verbs not admitting of the Continuous form, in negative sentences and with certain non-terminative verbs. With verbs not admitting of the Continuous form the Past Perfect Inclusive is the only tense possible. In negative sentences the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive can be used, but it is far less common than the Past Perfect Inclusive. With certain non-terminative verbs both the Past Perfect Inclusive and the Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive are used. He said he had worked for twenty years. (The fact is emphasized.) He said he had been working for a long time without achieving final results. (The process is emphasized.) The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive is rendered in Russian by the past imperfective. I had been reading about an hour when he came. Я читал около часа, когда он пришел. 2. The Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive denotes an action which was no longer going on at a definite moment in the past, but which had been in progress not long before. I sobbed a little still, but that was because I had been crying, not because I was crying then. (Dickens) § 33. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive and the Past Continuous. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive should not be confused with the Past Continuous. The Past Continuous is used to denote an action going on at a definite moment in the past, no previous duration is expressed. The Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive is used when the previous duration of the action is expressed. And now it was raining, had been raining for days the miserable fall rains of Eastern France. (Heym) The magnificent motor-car was waiting at the kerb. It had been waiting for two hours. (Bennett) THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS § 34. The formation of the Future Perfect Continuous. 1. The Future Perfect Continuous is formed by means of the Future Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb. 2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.
3. The contracted affirmative forms are: I’ll have been working He’ll have been working The contracted negative forms are: I shan’t have been working He won’t have been working 4. The negative-interrogative forms are: {Will he not have been working? Won’t he have been working? {Shall we not have been working? Shan’t we have been working? § 35. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous. The Future Perfect Continuous denotes an action which will begin before a definite moment in the future, will continue up to that moment and will be going on at that moment. We shall have been working at this problem for a month when you visit us a second time. THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS IN THE PAST § 36. The formation of the Future Perfect Continuous in the Past. 1. The Future Perfect Continuous in the Past is formed by means of the Future Perfect in the Past of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle I of the notional verb. 2. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.
3. The contracted affirmative forms are: I’d have been working He’d have been working The contracted negative forms are: I shouldn’t have been working He wouldn’t have been working 4. The negative-interrogative forms are: {Should I not have been working? Shouldn’t I have been working? {Would he not have been working? Wouldn’t he have been working? § 37. The use of the Future Perfect Continuous in the Past. The Future Perfect Continuous in the Past denotes an action lasting during a certain period of time before a definite moment which was future from the point of view of the past. I wondered how long they would have been packing by the time I returned. (For detailed treatment see Chapter XVIII.) . Table of Tenses
THE PASSIVE VOICE § 1. The formation of the Passive Voice. The Passive Voice is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the required form and Participle II of the notional verb. (a) The Present, Past and Future Indefinite Passive are formed by means of the Present, Past and Future Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle II of the notional verb.
(b) The Present, Past and Future Perfect Passive are formed by means of the Present, Past and Future Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle II of the notional verb.
(c) The Present Continuous and the Past Continuous Passive are formed by means of the Present Continuous and the Past Continuous of the auxiliary verb to be and Participle II of the notional verb.
The Future Continuous, the Present Perfect Continuous, the Past Perfect Continuous and the Future Perfect Continuous are not found in the Passive Voice. § 2. The use of the Passive Voice. The Passive Voice can be used: (a) without the doer of the action being mentioned (the usual case). In this case the doer is either unknown or unimportant. In silence the soup was finished — excellent, if a little thick; and fish was brought. In silence it was handed. (Galsworthy) Tom Tusher was sent off early, however, to a school in London. (Thackeray) (b) with the doer of the action being mentioned. This occurs only when the doer of the action is to some extent emphasized. The noun or pronoun denoting the doer of the action is introduced by the preposition by. He was wrenched from his blank wretchedness bythe sound of the door opening from his mother’s room. (Galsworthy) They were thus introduced byHolly. (Galsworthy) This room was dimly lighted from the ceiling bya single electric lamp. (Bennett) § 3. The use of tenses in the Passive Voice. The uses of tenses in the Active and in the Passive Voice are the same.
All Forsytes have shells... in other words, they are never seen, or if seen would not be recognized. (Galsworthy) The news was brought that the little boy at the “Three Castles” was ill. (Thackeray) Further meetings will be held tonight and tomorrow night. (Daily Worker) You have been told three times this week that she is coming home for a year for her health. (Shaw) I have been very unhappy since she died. I have been slighted and taught nothing, and thrown upon myself, and put to work not fit for me. (Dickens) By 12 o’clock a jury reasonably satisfactory to both sides had been chosen. (Dreiser) Don’t you disturb him. He is working at his wonderful poem. An immortal work of art is being created. (Marryat) When Mills got to the stables, a horse was being saddled. (Eliot) To express an action going on at a definite moment in the future only the Future Continuous Active is possible. Thus the Russian sentence ‘Когда вы придете в лабораторию, опыт уже будет производиться’ must be translated in the following way: When you come to the laboratory, we shall already be making the experiment. To denote an action which began before a definite moment in the present, past or future, and continued up to that moment, the Present, Past and Future Perfect Continuous Active are generally used. Уже два часа как правят корректуру. They have been reading the proofs for two hours. Когда пришел главный редактор, корректуру правили уже два часа. When the editor-in-chief came, they had been reading the proofs for two hours. The Present Perfect Inclusive Passive and the Past Perfect Inclusive Passive are found with verbs not used in the Continuous form, in negative sentences and with some non-terminative verbs (see Chapter VII, Tenses, § 18, 21). She has always been admired. The dictionary has not been used for months. § 4. Ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian. There are three ways of translating the Passive Voice into Russian: (a) by the verb быть +краткая форма причастия страдательного залога. In the Present the verb бытьis not used. (b) by verbs in ‑ся. (c) by means of indefinite-personal constructions (неопределенно-личные предложения). The last way of translating is possible only if the doer of the action is not mentioned. Houses are built of stone. Дома строятся из камня. Дома строят из камня. The house was built in 1932. Дом (был) построен в 1932 году. Дом построили в 1932 году. The experiment was made by a famous scientist. Опыт был произведен знаменитым ученым. Опыт производился знаменитым ученым. § 5. Uses of the Passive Voice peculiar to the English language. There are cases when the use of the Passive Voice seems to Russian students very peculiar because we find no analogous constructions in Russian. These cases are as follows: 1. The verbs to accord, to advise, to allow, to ask, to award, to deny, to envy, to forbid (rare), to forgive, to give, to grant, to offer, to order, to pay, to prescribe, to promise, to refuse, to show, to teach, to tell are used in the Passive Voice. These verbs always take an object expressed by a noun or an infinitive. The action expressed by the Passive Predicate passes on to the subject and the object. The subject corresponds to the Russian indirect object. He was granted a ten days’ leave. Has he been, shown the documents? The patient was prescribed a strict diet. He was ordered a change of scene. We were told to wait. N o t e. — These verbs admit of another type of passive construction if the object is expressed by a noun. Thus we can say not only I was given a book, He was shown a book, but also A book was given to me, A book was shown to him. The choice of the construction depends on the logical stress: in I was given a book, He was shown a book the thing given is emphasized, which occurs oftener; in The book was given to me, The book was shown to him the person is emphasized. 2. The Passive Voice is possible with intransitive verbs used with prepositions: to account for, to agree upon, to alludeto, to arrive at (a conclusion, agreement, decision), to call for, to call upon, to comment upon, to count upon, to depend on (upon), to dispose of, to fire at, to hear of, to insist on (upon), to interfere with, to laugh at, to listen to, to look after, to look at, to look down upon (смотреть на кого-либо сверху вниз), to look up to (смотреть на кого-либо снизу вверх), to provide for, to put up at (остановиться), to put up with (примириться), to read to, to refer to, to rely on, to run over, to send for, to speak about (of), to stare at, to talk about (to, over). At last an agreement was arrived at. Her strange behaviour was largely commented upon. He can be depended upon to keep strict silence. This is certainly a great inconvenience, but it must be put up with. The article is often referred to. Steerforth was looked up to by all the boys. The composite verb to do away with the preposition with can be used in the Passive Voice. In our country illiteracy was done away with many years ago. N o t e. — To send for can be used only in connection with people. The doctor was sent for. The secretary will be sent for. ‘Послать за лекарством (книгой)’ should be translated in the following way: to send somebody to fetch the medicine (the book). But we can say: A car (a cab, a taxi) was sent for. 3. The following verbal phraseological units can be used in the Passive Voice: to find fault with (придираться, находить недостатки), to lose sight of (терять из виду), to make fun of, to make use of (использовать), to pay attention to, to put an end to (положить конец), to set fire to, to take notice of, to take care of. The poor child was always being found fault with. Soon the boat was lost sight of. He was exceedingly absent-minded and was always made fun of. His remarks were taken no notice of. The discussion was put an end to by his sudden arrival. 4. Quite peculiar is the case when the subject of the passive predicate corresponds to the Russian adverbial modifier. This is the case with the intransitive verbs to live and to sleep with the preposition in. The bed was not slept in. The room is not lived in. 5. There are a number of transitive verbs in English which correspond to intransitive verbs in Russian. They are: to affect, to answer, to assist, to attend, to follow, to help, to influence, to join, to watch. These verbs naturally admit of the passive construction while their Russian equivalents cannot be used in the Passive Voice. She was greatly affected by the scene. The report was followed by a discussion. Walter Scott’s poetry was strongly influenced by the popular ballads. Such sentences are rendered in Russian by indefinite-personal sentences (неопределенно-личные предложения) unless the doer of the action is mentioned. In the latter case either the Active Voice is used, which occurs rather seldom, or the Passive Voice (consisting of the verb быть + краткая форма причастия страдательного залога). Не was granted ten days’ leave. Ему дали десятидневный отпуск. At last an agreement was arrived at. Наконец пришли к соглашению. The bed was not slept in. В постели не спали. The poor child was always being found fault with. К бедному ребенку всегда придирались. Steerforth was looked up to by all the boys. Все мальчики смотрели на Стирфорта снизу вверх. § 6. The verb to be + |