Английский. английский для ИТ 1. Методическое пособие по совершенствованию навыков чтения и говорения на английском языке для студентов фксиС и фитиУ
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- Manage memory. OS allocates a specific area of RAM for each program that is open and running. OS is itself a program, so it requires RAM space too. A microprocessor works with data and executes instructions stored in RAM – one of your computer’s most important resources. When you want to run more than one program at a time, the OS has to allocate specific areas of memory for each program. When multiple programs are running, the OS must ensure that instructions and data from one area of memory do not “leak” into an area allocated to another program. If an OS falls down on the job and fails to protect each program’s memory area, data can get corrupted, programs can “crash”, and your computer displays error messages. - Manage processor resources. The operating system also controls the microprocessor – just at a slightly higher level. Every cycle of a computer’s microprocessor is a resource for accomplishing tasks. Many activities – called “processes” – compete for the attention of your computer’s microprocessor. OS must ensure that each activity “process” receives its share of microprocessor cycles. A computer can take advantage of performance-enhancing technologies such as multitasking,multithreading,multiprocessing, dual core or multiple processors. - Keep track of storage resources. OS stores and retrieves files from your disks and CDs. It remembers the names and locations of all your files and keeps track of empty spaces where new files can be stored. - Ensure that input and output proceed in an orderly manner. OS communicates with device driver software so that data can travel smoothlybetween the computer and these peripheral resources. OS uses ‘buffers’ to collect and hold data while the computer is busy with other tasks. - Establish basic elements of the user interface. A user interface can be defined as the combination of hardware and software that helps people and computers communicate with each other. Your computer’s user interface includes a display device, mouse, and keyboard that allow you to view and manipulate your computer environment. It also includes software elements, such as menus and toolbar buttons. A graphical user interface(GUI) features menus and icons that you can manipulate with the click of a mouse. A command-line interface requires you to memorize and type commands. For nearly all PCs, servers, workstations, mainframes, and supercomputers, the operating system program is quite large, so most of it is stored on a hard disk. The operating system’s small bootstrap program is stored in ROM and supplies the instructions needed to load the operating system’s core into memory when the system boots. This core part of OS called the kernel provides the most essential operating system services, such as memory management and file access. The kernel always stays in RAM all the time your computer is on. Other parts of OS, such as customization utilities, are loaded into RAM as they are needed. Many operating systems provide helpful tools, called operating system utilities, that you can use to control and customize your computer equipment and work environment. They are typically accessed by using a GUI, such as the familiar Windows desktop. The most popular are: launch programs, manage files, get help, customize the user interface, and configure equipment. One operating system might be better suited to some computing tasks than others. To provide clues to their strengths and weaknesses, operating systems are informally categorized using one or more of the following terms: A single-user operating system expects to deal with one set of input devices – those that can be controlled by one user only. A multiuser operating system allows a single computer to deal with simultaneous input, output, and processing requests from many users. One of its most difficult responsibilities is to schedule all the processing requests that a centralized computer must perform. A network operating system provides communications and routing services that allow computers to share data, programs, and peripheral devices. The main difference between network OS and multiuser OS is that multiuser operating systems schedule requests for processing on a centralized computer, whereas a network operating system simply routes data and programs to each user’s local computer, where the actual processing takes place. A desktop operating system is one that is designed for a personal computer. Typically, these operating systems are designed to accommodate a single user, but might also provide network capability. Windows is the best-selling operating system. The number and variety of programs that run on Windows are unmatched by any other operating system, a fact that contributes to its dominant position as the most widely used desktop operating system. Utility software is a type of system software that is designed to perform a specialized task, such as system maintenance or security. Utility software that does not come packaged with an operating system is often referred to as a third-party utility. In past years, antivirus software was a popular category of third-party utilities. With the recent influx of nuisance ads, intrusion attempts, and spam, utilities such as ad blockers, personal firewalls, and spam filters have also become best sellers. Filtering software is used by parents to block their children from objectionable Websites. Another popular category of utility software is system utilities. These utilities track down and fix disk errors, repair corrupted files, and give your PC a performance – enhancing tune-up. A final group of utilities worth mentioning is designed for backing up and cleaning up hard disks, and shreddingfiles so they can’t be recovered. They can help you recover files deleted by mistake. Comprehension check. Indicate the paragraph where the following ideas are found in the text. 1. Operating system’s main purpose is to control what happens behind the scene. 2. Your PC can sometimes recover from memory leak problems if you use the Ctl+Alt+Del key sequence to close the corrupted program. 3. The operating system must ensure that the microprocessor does not “spin its wheels” waiting for input while it could be working on some other processing projects. 4. Windows is installed on more than 80 % of the world’s personal computers. 5. The term “buffer” is a technical jargon for a region of memory that holds data waiting to be transferred from one device to another. 6. Many operating systems provide helpful tools, called operating system utilities, that you can use to control and customize your computer equipment and work environment. Vocabulary practice 1. In the text find the opposites to the given words. roughly shred disorganize monopolize stop succeed break 2. Fill in the blanks choosing from the variants given. 1. An operating system … a computer’s resources, such as Ram, storage space, and peripherals. a) allocates b) defines c) manages d) accommodates 2. To … more than one program at a time, the operating system must allocate specific areas of Ram for each program. a) store b) install c) fix d) run 3. A graphical user-interface provides a way to point and click a mouse to … menu options and manipulate objects that appear on the screen. a) feature b) deal with c) select d) manage 4. Handheld devices, such as PDAs and smartphones typically … single-user operating systems. a) feature b) retrieve c) include d) establish 5. OS communicates with device driver software so that data can travel … between the computer and peripheral resources. a) roughly b) smoothly c) simultaneously d) primary 6. Desktop operating systems are designed to accommodate a single user, but might also provide network … . a) variety b) security c) capability d) compatibility 3. Make three-word combinations using the words in columns and then fill in the gaps in the following sentences. A: multiuser B: operating C: system third user technologies desktop enhancing interface graphical operating system performance party utilities 1. IBM’s OS/390 is one of the most popular mainframe … . 2. A computer can take advantages of … . 3. A … features menus and icons that you can manipulate with a click of a mouse. 4. A …, such as Windows, is designed for personal computers. 5. WinZip, WinAce are … that offer a variety of compression options. 4. Fill in the gaps in the text. ___ (computer/application) software tells the operating system what to do. The operating system tells the ___ (device/tool) drivers, device drivers tell the ___ (software/hardware), and the hardware actually does the work. The operating system___ (interacts/competes) with application software, device drivers, and hardware to ___ (manage/define) a computer’s ___ (resources/compatibility). The core part of an operating system is called the ___ (kernel/cycle). In addition to this core, many operating systems ___ (provide/schedule) helpful tools, called ___ (utilities/capabilities). Speaking. Discuss the following questions. 1. What is an operating system? 2. What does an operating system do? 3. How does an operating system manage processor resources? 4. Why does an operating system manage memory? 5. Where is the operating system stored? 6. What are utilities? What are the most popular ones? 7. How does the operating system affect the user interface? Text C Reading. Read the text and try to guess the meaning of the words in bold. Check your variants in the dictionary. APPLICATION SOFTWARE Most computers include some basic word processing, e-mail, and Internet access software, but computer owners want additional software to increase their computer’s productivity, business, learning, or entertainment capabilities. Document production software This software assistsyou with composing, editing, designing, printing, and electronically publishing documents. The three most popular types of document software are word processing, desktop publishing, and Web authoring. Word processing software, such as Microsoft Word gives you the ability to create, spell-check, edit, and format a document on the screen before you commit it to paper. Desktop publishing software (abbreviated DTP) has sophisticated features to help you produce professional-quality output for newspapers, newsletters, brochures, magazines, and books. Web authoring software helps you design and develop customized Web pages that you publish electronically on the Internet. It provides easy-to-use tools for composing the text for a web page, assembling graphical elements, and automatically generating HTML tags. Document production software makes it easy to let your ideas flow because it automatically handles many tasks as “word wrap”, a spelling checker. It offers several features that can improve the quality of your writing. They are: a thesaurus, a grammar checker, a readability formula, a Search and Replace. The “look” of your final document depends on several formatting factors, such as font style, paragraph style, and page layout. Document production software allows you to work more productively. Spreadsheet Software A spreadsheet uses rows and columnsof numbers to create a model or representation of a real situation. Today, spreadsheet software, such as Microsoft Excel, provides tools to create electronic spreadsheets. As an added bonus, spreadsheet software helps you turn your data into a variety of colorful graphs. It also includes special data-handling features that allow you to sort data, search for data that meets specific criteria, and print reports. Spreadsheets are popular with accountants and financial managers who deal with paper-based calculations. Because it is easy to experiment with different numbers, spreadsheet software is particular useful for what-if analysis. The disadvantage of spreadsheet software is that – aside from a few predesigned templates– you are responsible for entering formulas and selecting functions for calculations. If you don’t know the formulas or don’t understand the functions, you are out of luck. In contrast to spreadsheet software, “number crunching” software provides a structured environment dedicated to a particular number crunching tasks, such as statistical analysis, mathematical modeling, or money management. Database Software A database is simply a collection of data that is stored on one or more computers. It can contain any sort of data. Database software helps you enter, find, organize, update, and report information stored in a database. Microsoft Access, FileMaker Pro, and ask Sam are three of the most popular examples of database software for personal computers. Database software stores data as a series of records, which are composed of fields that hold data. A record holds data for a single entity – a person, place, or event. A field holds one item of data relevantto a record. Your database software can help you print reports, export data to other programs, convert the data to other formats such as HTML. Whether you print, import, copy, save, or transmit the data you find in databases, it is your responsibility to use it appropriately. Never introduce inaccurate information into a database. Graphics Software Graphics software is designed to help you create, manipulate, and print graphics. Some graphics software products specialize in a particular type of graphic, while others allow you to work with multiple graphics formats. If you are really interested in working with graphics, you will undoubtedly end up using more than one graphics software product. The most popular are paint software, photo editing software, and drawing software, CAD (computer-aided design) software, and presentation software. Video editing software provides a set of tools for transferring video footage from a camcorder to a computer, clipping out unwanted footage, assembling video segments in any sequence, adding special visual effects, and adding a sound track. DVD authoring software offers tools for creating DVD with Hollywood-style menus. A software suite is a collection of application software sold as a single package. Educational software helps you learn and practice new skills. It is available for such diverse educational endeavors as learning languages, training yourself to use new software, how to play the piano or guitar, and improving keyboarding skills. Exam preparation software is available for standardized tests. Reference software provides a collection of information and a way to access that information. This type of software includes massive amount of data. The reference software category spans a wide range of applications – from encyclopedias to medical references, from map software to trip planners, and from cookbooks to telephone books. The options are as broad as the full range of human interests. Computer games are the most popular type of entertainment software. Music software is represented by audio editing software, CD ripper software, audio encoding software, ear training software. Comprehension check. Choose the ending for each sentence from the two versions given. 1. You can vary the font style selecting character formatting attributes, such as a) italics, bold, underline, etc. b) layout, headers, frames, etc. 2. A thesaurus can help you find a) opposites for a word. b) synonyms for a word. 3. In a worksheet, a) each column is numbered and each row is lettered. b) each column is lettered and each row is numbered. 4. Mathematical modeling software helps you a) visualize the product of complex formulas. b) analyze large sets of data to discover patterns. 5. Database software helps you a) learn and practice new skills. b) enter and organize information. 6. A software suite is a) a collection of application software sold as a single package. b) a collection of data stored on one or more computers. Vocabulary practice 1. Which word does not belong to the group? a) assist, help, edit, aid; b) contain, select, choose, pick; c) relevant, additional, supplementary, extra; d) spreadsheet, database, Linux, graphics; e) handle, deal with, assemble, manage; f) generate, update, form, create. g) improve, search for, upgrade, enhance 2. Fill in the missing words choosing from the variants given. 1. Various kinds of document product software provide tools for creating and … printed and web-based materials. a) formatting b) sorting c) assembling d) transmitting 2. Spreadsheet software provides a sort of “blank canvas” on which you can create numeric … by simply “painting” values, labels, and formulas. a) columns b) sequences c) models d) features 3. Database software stores data as a series of … and allows you to establish relationships between different types of records. a) templates b) items c) entities d) records 4. CD ripper software … files from an audio CD to your computer’s hard disk. a) edits b) transfers c) formats d) sorts 5. DVD authoring software … you to add Hollywood style menus to digital videos. a) lets b) makes c) allows d) helps 6. The reference software category spans a wide … of applications. a) entity b) sequence c) range d) circuit 3. Transform the following sentences without any change in meaning. Use the prompts as they are given (words in brackets, parts of sentences). 1. Most document production software includes a spelling checker. A spelling checker is mostly … 2. Word processing offers several features that can improve the quality of writing (to enhance). 3. You may not be a composer or a musician to have a use for music software. Neither … nor … 4. Many types of CAD software is available (get access). 5. Instead of typing data into a database you can also use data from a commercial database (import). … than … you can … 6. If you are interested in working with graphics, you end up using more than one graphics software product (combine). One who … 4. Fill in the gaps in the text. The three most popular types of document production software include word processing, ___, and Web authoring. ___ software is similar to a “smart” piece of paper that automatically adds up the ___ of numbers you write on it. You can use it to make other calculations, too, based on simple equations that you write or more complex, built-in ___. Because it’s so easy to experiment with different numbers, this type of software is particular useful for ___ analyses. ___ software helps you store, find, organize, update, and report information stored in one or more tables. When two sets of records are ___, database software allows you to access data from both tables at the same time. A software ___ is a “bundled” collection of application software sold as a single package. Speaking. Discuss the following questions. 1. How does document production software help me turn my ideas into sentences and paragraphs? 2. What if I am a bad speller? 3. What features of document product software can improve my writing? 4. What is a spreadsheet? 5. What other “number-crunching” software is available? 6. What is a database? 7. What is the best –selling entertainment software? 8. What is a software suite? Text D Reading. Read the text and try to guess the meaning of the words in bold. Check your variants in the dictionary. BUYING AND INSTALLING SOFTWARE It’s surprising how quickly your collection of software can grow as you discovernew ways to use your computer. Before you can use software, you have to install it on your computer. The key “ingredients” necessary to install new software are the files that contain the programs and data. These files might be supplied on distribution media. System requirements, which specify the operating system and minimum hardware capacities necessary for a software product to work correctly can be found on the software box or posted on the download site. Installation basics When you install software, the new software files are placed in the appropriate folders on your computer’s hard disk, and then your computer performs any software or hardware configurations necessary to make sure the program is ready to run. During the installation process, your computer usually performs the following tasks: - Copies files from distribution media or downloads files to specified folders on the hard disk - Uncompresses files that have been distributed in compressed format. - Analyzes the computer’s resources, such as processor speed. RAM capacity, and hard disk capacity, to verify that they meet or exceed the minimum system requirements. - Analyzes hardware components and peripheral devices to select appropriate device drivers. - Looks for any system files and players, such as Internet Explorer or Windows media Player, that are required to run the program but are not supplied on the distribution media or download. - Updates necessary system files, such as the Windows Registry and the Windows Start menu, with information about the new software. Software updates Software publishers regularly updatetheir software to add new features, fix bugs, and update its security. Types of software updates (also called “upgrades”), include new versions, patches, and service packs. A software patch is a small selection of program code that replacespart of the software you currently have installed. The term service pack, which usually applies to operating system updates, is a set of patches that correct problems and address security vulnerabilities. Software patches and service packs are usually free. It’s always a good idea to install patches and services when they become available. The revised code they contain often addresses security vulnerabilities and the sooner you patch up those holes, the better. A new version update usually installs in a similar way as you installed the original version, by activating a setup program, displaying a license agreement, and adding updated entries to your computer’s Start menu. Patches and service packs are usually distributed over the Internet and automatically install themselves when you download them. To combat piracy, many software publishers require users to type in a validation code to complete an installation. The result of an update depends on several factors. Most patches and service pack installations can not be reversed. A new version installation typically overwrites the old version, but you might have the option to keep the old version just in case you have trouble with the new one and need to revert back to the previous version. Uninstalling software With some operating systems, such as DOS, you can remove software simply by deleting its files. Other operating systems, such as Windows and Mac OS, include an uninstall routine, which deletes the software’s files from various folders on your computer’s hard disk. The uninstall routine also removes references to the program from the desktop and from operating system files, such as the file system restrictions. Software Copyrights and licenses Copyright laws have fairly severe restrictions on copying, distributing, and reselling software; however, a license agreement might offer additional rights to consumers. The licenses for commercial software, shareware, freeware, open source, and public domain software specify different levels of permission for software use, copying, and distribution. Commercial software is typically sold in computer stores or at Web sites. Although you “buy” this software, you actually purchase only the right to use it under the terms of the software license. Shareware is copyrighted software marketed under a “try before buy” policy. It typically includes a license that permits you to use software for a trial period. To use it beyond the trial period you must pay a registration fee. A shareware license usually allows you to make copies of the software and distribute them to others. If they choose to use the software, they must pay a registration fee as well. Freeware is copyrighted software that is available for free. Because the software is protected by copyright, you cannot do anything with it that is not allowed by copyright law or by the author. Typically, the license for freeware permits you to use the software, copy it, and give it away, but does not permit you to alter it or sell it. Many utility programs, device drivers, and some games are available as freeware. Open source software makes the uncompiled program instructions – the source code – available to programmers who want to modify and improve the software. Public domain software is not protected by copyright because the copyright has expired, or the author has placed the program in the public domain, making it available without restriction. It may be freely copied, distributed, even resold. The primary restriction on public domain software is that you are not allowed to apply for a copyright on it. Comprehension check. Match the beginnings of the sentences in the first column with the endings in the second.
Vocabulary practice 1. Put the letters in the followingwords into correct order. tchopgiry roeisttcri deexec susnecropm trneeqmueir rdeivsoc erceneefr 2. Fill in the blanks choosing from the variants given. 1. System … specify the operating system and minimum hardware capacities required for software to work correctly. a) requirements b) references c) replacements 2. During the … process, your computer performs many tasks, including updating the Windows Registry and Start menu. a) uninstallation b) installation c) updating d) copyrighting 3. Linux is an example of … software. a) open source b)freeware c) public domain d) shareware 4. A software patch is a small selection of program code that … part of the software you currently have installed. a) activates b) replaces c) installs d) specifies 5. Public domain software is not copyrighted because the copyright has … . a) completed b) expired c) replaced d) purchased 6. Software patches and service packs are usually … . a) expensive b) inexpensive c) free 3. Restore the instructions for installing software from distribution media by matching the beginnings with the endings and put them into the correct order.
4. Fill in the gaps in the text. When you ___ software, the new software files are placed in the appropriate ___ on your computer’s hard disk, and then your computer performs any software configurations that are necessary to make sure the program is ready to run. The ___ files and data files for the software are placed in the folder you specify. Windows software typically contains a ___ program that guides you through the installation process. A ___ is a form of legal protection that grants the author of an original “work” the right to copy, distribute, sell, and modify that work, except under special circumstances described by laws. A software ___ is a legal contract that defines the ways in which you may use a computer program. Speaking. Discuss the following questions. 1. Where can I get software? 2. What is included in a typical software package? 3. How do I know if a software program will work on my computer? 4. Why is it necessary to install most software? 5. What is a software update? 6. How do I get rid of software? 7. Are all software licenses similar? Critical thinking. Read the article and express you opinion on the problem. Software Piracy Software is easy to steal. You don’t have to walk out of a store with a $495 DVD Workshop software box under your shirt. You can simply borrow your friend’s DVD Workshop distribution CDs and install a copy of the program on your computer’s hard disk. It seems so simple that it couldn’t be illegal. But it is. Piracy takes many forms. End-user piracy includes friends loaning distribution disks to each other and installing software on more computers than the license allows. Although it is perfectly legal to lend a physical object, such as a sweater, to a friend, it is not legal to lend digital copies of software and music because, unlike a sweater that can be worn by only one person at a time, copies of digital things can be simultaneously used by many people. Counterfeiting is the large-scale illegal duplication of software distribution media, and sometimes even its packaging. According to Microsoft, many software counterfeiting groups are linked to organized crime and money-laundering schemes that fund a diverse collection of illegal activities, such as smuggling, gambling, extortion. Counterfeiting software is sold in retail stores and through online auctions– often the packaging looks so authentic that buyers have no idea they have purchased illegal goods. Internet piracy uses the Web as a way to illegally distribute unauthorized software. The Business Software Alliance (BSA) estimates that more than 800.000 Web sites illegally sell or distribute software. In many countries software pirates are subject to civil lawsuits for monetary damages and criminal prosecution, which can result in jail time and stiff fines. Is software piracy really damaging? Who cares if you use a program without paying for it? Software piracy is damaging because it has a negative effect on the economy. Software production fuels economic development of many countries. A BSA economic impact study concluded that lowering global piracy from an average of 36 % to only 26 % would add more than 1 million jobs and $400 billion in worldwide economic growth. Decreases in software revenues can have a direct effect on consumers, too. When software publishers are forced to cut corners, they tend to reduce customer service and technical support. As a result, you, the consumer, get put on hold when you call for technical support, find fewer free support sites, and encounter customer support personnel who are only moderately knowledgeable about their products. The bottom line – software piracy negatively affects customer service. As an alternative to cutting support costs, some software publishers might build the cost of software piracy into the price of the software. Some analysts suggest that people need more education about software copyrights and the economic implications of piracy. Other analysts believe that copyright enforcement must be increased by implementing more vigorous efforts to identify and prosecute pirates. What do you think? 1. Do you believe that software piracy is a serious issue? 2. Do you know of any instances of software piracy? 3. Do you think that most software pirates understand that they are doing something illegal? 4. Should software publishers try to adjust software pricing for local markets? Final test. Do the tasks in the following test. 1. All publicly available software programs adhere to the same licensing agreements. (True/False) 2. A(n) ___ operating system provides process and memory management services that allow two or more programs to run simultaneously. 3. Which of the following type of software is copyrighted software marked under a “try before buy” policy. a) freeware b) shareware c) commercial software d) public domain software 4. ___ software helps you store, organize, update, and report information. 5. The microprocessor controls the operating system in your computer. (True/False) 6. A computer’s microprocessor understands both high-level and machine language. (True/False) 7. The operating system in many handheld computers is small enough to be stored in ROM. (True/False) 8. The software installation process includes which of the following activities: a) analyzing the computer’s resources b) analyzing the computer’s hardware c) updating necessary system files d) all of the above 9. MP3 encoding software is used to pull tracks off a CD and store it in a raw digital format on a computer’s hard disk. (True/False) 10. A(n) ___ translates all of the instructions in a program as a single batch, producing machine language instructions that are placed in a new file. 11. To start a software program, you run the program’s main ___ file. 12. Which of the following converts one computer instruction at a time into a machine language while the program is running? a) a compiler b) an interpreter c) a translator d) none of the above 13. ___ language is the instruction set that is ‘hard wired’ within a microprocessor’s circuits. 14. A (n) ___ is a set of letters that shares a unified design. 15. Programmers first write instructions in a machine language and then translate them into a high-level language. (True/False) 16. System requirements specify both the operating system and the minimum hardware capacity necessary for a software product to work correctly. (True/False) 17. The ___ routine deletes a software program’s files and removes references to the program from the desktop and operating system files. 18. Which of the following is responsible for allocating specific areas of memory for each program running on your computer. a) the microprocessor b) the operating system c) RAM d) none of the above 19. Software counterfeiting and piracy does not include software that is distributed on the Internet. (True/False) 20. An auxiliary set of instructions that is used in conjunction with the main software program is called a(n) ___. a) data file b) main executable file c) support program d) auxiliary file Projects. Choose and perform one of the projects given. 1. Computer games are big business. They are exported worldwide and accessed by communities of online players around the globe. For this project gather information about the most internationally popular computer games. Try some of them yourself to see what they are all about. What effect, if any, would you expect these games to have on individual players living in the cultures of 1) industrialized countries, 2) Middle-eastern countries, and 3) developing countries? Summarize your ideas. 2. Use the Web and other resources to compile a list of the software used in your current or future career field. Are there standard packages that job applicants need to know how to use? If so, what can you find out about those packages on the Web. Also, make a list of the software packages you are familiar with. Use the software classification system. As you consider your career goals for the next year, list at least five additional software packages you would like to learn. Explain why they would be helpful. Unit 4. FILE MANAGEMENT, VIRUS PROTECTION AND BACKUP TEXT A Pre-reading. Match the meaning of the following English words with their Russian equivalents.
Reading. Read the text and try to guess the meaning of the words in bold. Check your variants in the dictionary. FILE BASICS A computer file – or simply a “file” – is defined as a named collection of data that exists on a storage medium, such as a disk, CD, DVD, or tape. A file can contain a group of records, a document, a photo, music, a video, an e-mail message, or a computer program. Computer files have several characteristics, such as a name, format, location, size, and date. Every file has a name and might also have a file extension. When you save a file, you must provide a valid file name that adheres to specific rules, referred to as file-naming conventions. Each operating system has a unique set of file-naming conventions. Figure 4 lists the file-naming conventions for the current versions of Windows.
Fig. 4: Windows File-naming Conventions DOS and Windows 3.1 limited file names to eight characters. With that limitation, it was often difficult to create descriptive file names As a result, files were sometimes difficult to locate and identify. Today, most operating systems allow you to use long file names. Current versions of Windows support file names up to 255 characters long. That limitation includes the entire file path sometimes called a file specification—drive letter, folders, file name and extension. C:\My Music\Reggae\Marley One Love.mp3
An operating system maintains a list of files called a directory for each storage disk, tape, CD, or DVD. The main directory of a disk is referred to as the root directory. A root directory can be subdivided into smaller lists. Each list is called a subdirectory. When you use Windows, Mac OS, or a Linux graphical file manager, these subdirectories are depicted as folders. Folders can be created within other folders. (See the example, mentioned above) A folder name is separated from a drive letter and other folder names by a special symbol. In Microsoft Windows, this symbol is the backslash (\). By storing a file in a folder, you assign it a place in an organized hierarchy of folders and files. If an operating system attaches special significance to a symbol, you might not be able to use it in a file name. For example, Windows uses the colon (:) character to separate the device letter from a file name or folder, as in C:Music. When you use Windows applications, avoid using the symbols: * \ < > | " / and ? in file names. Some operating systems also contain a list of reserved words that are used as commands or special identifiers. You cannot use these words alone as a file name. Windows users should avoid using the following reserved words as file names: Nul, Aux, Com1, Com2, Com3, Com4, Con, Lpt1, Lpt2, Lpt3, and Prn. Some operating systems are case sensitive, but not those you typically work with on personal computers. Feel free to use uppercase and lowercase letters in file names that you create on PCs and Macs. You can also use spaces in file names. That’s a different rule than for e-mail addresses where spaces are not allowed. You’ve probably noticed that people often use underscores or periods instead of spaces in e-mail addresses such as Madi_Jones@msu.edu. That convention is not necessary in file names, so a file name such as Letter to Madi Jones is valid. A file extension is an optional file identifier that is separated from the main file name by a period, as in Paint.exe. With some operating systems, such as Windows, file extensions work like tickets that admit people to different plays, movies, or concerts. If a file has the right extension for a |