Развитие государства. Конец ХХ столетия ознаменовался развитием демократических процес. Нравственное, полное смысла
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определение риторики, показывается ее место в ряду других наук и искусств. Несомненной заслугой Аристотеля при формулировании определения являлось подчеркивание универсальностиhttp://www.philology.bsu.byриторики, в противовес Платону, который устами героя своих произведений Сократа оспаривал самостоятельность данной дисциплины на том основании, что остальные науки также прибегают к убеждению в истинности свих положений. Аристотель предлагает такое толкование понятия риторика, которое превращает названный якобы недостаток в большое достоинство: «Риторика - это способность находить возможные способы убеждения относительно каждого данного предмета». В той же книге трактата представлена классификация возможных способов убеждения. Среди них, в частности, выделяются доказательства к логосу (рационально-логическое содержание речи), доказательства к этосу (демонстрация положительных сторон нравственного облика говорящего) и доказательства к пафосу (эмоциональная окраска выступления, обращение к чувствам слушателей): | The end of the twentieth century was marked by the development of democratic processes in independent States formed on the site of the former Soviet republics, the activity of social life and the need for means that could unite a disparate, disintegrated, warring humanity. One such effective means of uniting humanity was the word moral, which was full of meaning. Communication is necessary for a person thinking. In general, it is carried out using speech (words). Eloquence/oratory/rhetoric - a word of Russian origin, means the ability to say "red (i.e. beautifully) and thereby bow others to their opinion "(M. Lomonosov). Is it possible to put an equal mark between eloquence and oral art? Some speakers (for example, judicial speakers A.F. Koni, F.N. Plevako) distinguished these terms, believing that eloquence is "the gift of the word," exciting, captivating listeners with the beauty of the form, brightness of images and the power of aptly expressed expressions, and oratory art is a skill formed over the years, speaking competently and convincingly. Eloquence, according to their conviction, is a natural gift, developed work, and oratory art can be studied by a person deprived of natural talent. Other speakers believe that "eloquence" and "oratory is a sense" of the concept is identical and means the art of public (monological) speech. For example, Mark Tullius Cicero, a leading politician, writer and speaker not only of antiquity, but of the entire subsequent period, believed that "eloquence is something that is more difficult than it seems, and is born from a lot of knowledge and effort." In the treatise "On the Orator" (55 BC. e.), dedicated to eloquence, Cicero writes: "I repeatedly looked at people with extraordinary and gifted extraordinary abilities, and this led me to such a question: why the eloquence of all sciences and arts put forward the least remark of good representatives. The history of Rome has given many remarkable commanders, politicians, philosophers, mathematicians, poets. At the same time, there were no good speakers at all for a very long time, and there will be one demolition for each generation. " And Cicero further explains: "Perhaps the reason is that little attention was paid to the science of eloquence? By no means. In our fatherland, of course, nothing has ever been studied harder than the rethoric. There was hardly at least one ambitious young man who did not hesitate to comprehend the art of the speaker at all costs. It promised to this work awards, popularity, influence and respect. In communicating all these circumstances, are we not entitled to be surprised that in the history of generations of these States we find such a small number of speakers? " The answer to this question, in all likelihood, lies in the difficulties of the subject "Rhetoric," whose task is to teach skillful mastery of a word in speech, that is, the art of eloquence. Rhetoric - the science of eloquence - originated in the ancient world (Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, V-I centuries BC. e.), whose states were built on the principles of slave-owning democracy. The birth of rhetoric as a discipline is connected with the philosophical and oratory deeds of sophists, who took for an appropriate fee to teach anyone the art of public speech. Note that rhetoric in the first stages of its formation was not so much a theory as a practice of teaching speech skills. The concepts of "art" and "skill" in ancient Greece were identical and denoted by one word - techne (techne; hence the word technique). The word rhito is of Greek origin (rhetorike), it is derived from the word rheo - I say………..; derived from rheo - rhetor - meant "rhetor," "speaker"; the latter gave the name to science - rhetoric or master of art/the art of oratory speech. Rhetorical pedagogy arose in Athens and quickly developed because the gift of the word was considered the main criterion of full classical education. The founder of ancient rhetoric is considered to be the sophist Gorgius (485,380 BC. e.), which introduced into the education system special training in oratory art. The golden statue of Gorgius, placed in Delphi, confirms the merits of this sophist to Greek culture. The author of the first ancient textbook on rhetoric for special schools is called the Sicilian Koraka from Syracuse. But the most authoritative textbook on rhetoric, which has retained its significance in our time, is the "Rhetoric" of Aristotle (IV century BC). According to Aristotle, rhetoric is the science of common ways of persuasion, based on a clear system of logical evidence, skill and the art of finding these ways and using the logic of proof. The most important thing in the oratory art, according to Aristotle, is evidence. Each type of eloquence is characterized by a peculiarity in the choice of methods of proof. So, in lithic speech, examples are more often used: the speaker cites facts that previously happened, or literary (parable, fable); in the fate - syllogisms, as well as laws, testimonies, treaties, etc., in the solemn - comparisons, exaggerations (the speaker describe the subject of his speech with greatness and beauty). "Rhetoric" by Aristote, created in the IV century. BC e., served as the basis of the later rhetoric guidelines- ancient, European, including Russian. Of particular interest is the "Short Guide to Rhetoric" (1748) by M.V. Lomonosov, in which the author gives a definition of rhetoric, corresponding to the ancient tradition: "Eloquence is the art of all this matter red talk and thereby bow others to their opinion of it. The ma teria proposed by this art is called speech or word. " Therefore, according to Lomonosov, just like Aristotle, rhetoric is the art of persuasion. The definition of rhetoric as a science and its tasks, formulated by N. F. Koshansky in "General Rhetoric" (1829), can be considered fundamentally believing and modern, since eloquence is understood by him as the art of thinking: "Rhetoric, having an object of thought, is still called 1) where they come from (invention); 2) as are put in order (location); 3) as stated (expression of thoughts). From here the conclusion: "Rhetoric is generally the science of inventing, possessing and expressing thoughts." However, by the mid-30s. Nineteenth century. the position of rhetoric, especially in Russia, is changing dramatically. V. G. Belinsky was the first to oppose this science, stating, "Everything is false, vulgar, every form without content, all this is called retorics." "retorics is naughty science and harmful knowledge. scum, "" not even science at all. " A.N. Radishchev in "The Word about Lomonosov" also gave the denier an assessment of the rules of rhetoric. What was the reason for the negative assessments given by the rhetoric of democratic figures in Russia? Among various facts, we will call the main one - the distortion of the goal of rhetoric in Russia in the XVII-XVIII centuries, where only solemn eloquence ruled, glorifying a centralized state led by the monarch. However, for the sake of fairness, it should be noted that one of the most important requirements of classical rhetoric is the knowledge of the laws according to which speech is built: "Combining ideas into decent in order, for the benefits in a great number of ideas are not properly laid." According to M.V. Lomonosov, one of great natural qualities (giftedness, smartness, memory, loud voice, posanistic appearance) is not enough for eloquence. As we can see, rhetoric determined the rules, how to state the idea, build the text, pronounce it in front of the audience. In the XVIII century. this would be a carefully developed science that helps the student "take up the pen or climb the department." And then, for almost a century, rhetoric as a science was practically not in demand, as it was perceived as an outdated speech system. The revival of rhetoric began in the middle of the twentieth century. in the West and in the East (Japan), where the theory of information was rapidly developing, by which time it needed a single, generalizing theory, in a special logic of humanitarian cognition. The new time is marked by the capitalization of society and the struggle of the masses for its democratization. These factors contributed to the revival of political and judicial eloquence. The formation of political speech took place primarily in the process of parliamentary de bats. The development of judicial eloquence was due to the process of democratization of bourgeois society, which is objectively not possible without the formation of a legal framework, which is associated with the activation of the activities of lawyers. The history of rhetoric confirms that "nothing expresses the power of democracy and the danger that threatens it, like public speech. The very freedom to convince by word is the main guarantee and form of democracy. " In these words of the famous modern American scientist Paul L. Soper who created the manual on art of the speech the public value of oratory and the public need for him is emphasized. However it should be noted what in the American ritoriko-pedagogical tradition of the rhetorician is understood as the general doctrine about expedient creation of the speech and includes knowledge of a speech normformation: orthoepic, spelling, grammatical. And in this regard, we note that at present the main subject in the native language in the United States is rhetoric. The American rhetoric is called "the most perfect tool for manipulating public opinion" (O. Brynskaya), and therefore rhetoric is before the state ideology, which occupies a special position among the humanities in the United States. Rhetoric belongs the central place in the system of theoretical humanitarian knowledge in the system of university education: theoretical, practical courses and certain forms of study and leisure of students (during weekends) have been developed; there are discussion "round tables" (for all students at each university) and university "round tables" (for the most competent), where discussions about topical social and political issues are held. Modern rhetoric in US philology is understood as science (science) and as art (art) - knowledge that turns into skill (skill). As a science, it explores what forms speech takes between people, what rules human speech obeys. And it should be noted that Americans, Europeans and Japanese believe that improving speech communication is the most important means of improving and developing society. Sociologists have determined that a modern person spends more than 65% of his working time in oral communication. According to American scientists, the average resident of the Earth takes 2.5 years to talk. This means that homo sapiens, was and remains homo eloquens - a talking person. In many situations, a person speaks not only in order to inform the interlocutor, but in order to influence him: convince, persuade on his side, incite, refute, deliver joy. Do we often succeed? Do we need rhetorical knowledge so that the speaker's speech does not leave the listener indifferent, but prompts agreement or an asset to act, change the way of life, worldview, etc. It can be clearly argued that mastering the rhetorical theory and skill of eloquence should be the goal of every student at the university's Faculty of Humanities. The main feature of rhetoric as an educational subject in a university is that it has social tasks: the education of a rhetorician - a worthy member of society, competent, with a conscious position, promoting highly moral social norms in the conduct and methods of organizing speech relations. The key to the rhetoric of education at the modern stage in a classical university is the preservation of the continuity of classical and modern rhetoric, pedagogically and practically oriented. Rhetoric (theory, skill and the art of eloquence) arose, in fact, as rhetorical pedagogy, which was said earlier, because sophists, the first theorists and practitioners in this area, were engaged in rhetoric and pedagogical activity, that is, they taught the skill of eloquence. Therefore, the rhetoric that arose in Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece as an educational subject, and today should have a pedagogical and practically oriented character. According to many scientists, modern rhetoric is again the philosophy of speech communication (and not just its technique), it is a generalizing ethics and aesthetics of speech communication, posing problems of moral choice, good and evil and their manifestations in speech behavior and communication. And today you can confidently say that modern rhetoric is a general humanitarian (philological and cultural) discipline that studies theory, principles, techniques (methods) for constructing appropriate speech (general rhetoric) and specifically types of speeches (private rhetoric). As a discipline in the university, rhetoric stands among linguistics, stylistics, textology, semiotics, theory and history of literature and means: the study of theory, its connection with socio-linguistic practice; mastering the knowledge of building a communicatively adequate text (depending on the target setting), which actually exists in the form of a genre; The formation of professional skills on this basis, providing skills associated with preparing for speaking at every stage of the classical canon (invention, location, choice, memorization and utterance of public speech). The Rhetoric Curriculum for Humanities does not include the task of teaching the "art of eloquence," since the mastery of the theory and skill of eloquence should be available to each student, should not depend on special abilities (gift, talent of eloquence). The skill of pubs of personal performance consists in the skillful use of both forms of human thinking: logical and figurative. The most important task of the subject "Rhetoric" is to ensure that students understand the basic elements of the process of re-communication and form the skills and skills necessary for effective speech behavior in any speech situations. The purpose of lectures on rhetoric is to give the foundations of classical modern rhetorical theory, to introduce it to world rhetorical culture, to help students become direct participants in real speech communication, remembering the ancient proverb: "What is life for people, such is the speech" and the fair statement of the Roman philosopher Seneca: "As the magnificence of feasts and clothes is a sign of the bo-lezni that engulfed the state, and the freedom of speech, if met often, testifies to the fall of souls, from which words come." Особенности нашего понимания предмета риторики как современной теоретической и практической учебной дисциплины в вузе проявляются в отборе материала и соответствующей композиции основных разделов лекций по общей риторике. Lecture 2. RHETORIC IN ANCIENT GREECE Starting a systematic acquaintance with the history of the rhetoric of antiquity, we have the right to ask logical questions: will the information on the "archeology of the mouth of the word" be unnecessary for the speaker of our day? will this knowledge not be more than unclaimed by the "dead load" of his memory? We assure you that, no matter how pragma our contemporary is determined, the answer to the questions posed will be unquestionably negative. Turning to the rhetoric of wisdom of the ancients, to the origins of the development of rhetoric, allows you to take children and evaluate the enduring, non-emphasis values and laws of reverence with the word. Their justification and significance is evidenced by the fact that they have stood the test of time with honor. The role of ancient Greek practitioners-speakers and mentors-rhetors is especially great and unique in the history of rhetoric. Ancient Greece is rightly called the "cradle of European culture" in general and rhetorical culture in particular. Antiquity is both the epic of the birth of initial rhetorical knowledge and the time when they come into a slender scientific system; this period, when the eloquence reachesthe highest peaks, has real power and a significant prestige. Already in the ancient era, "under the sky of the young El Lada," worldview ideals of verbal exposure and interaction are formed, very skillful and cunning tactics of persuasion are developed, attractive for listeners are outlined, although sometimes contrasting oratory manners. Acquaintance with the rhetoric of the ancient heritage contributes to the spiritual enrichment of the face, introduces it to the cultural memory of mankind, while at the same time arming it with techniques that still retain their mutual effectiveness in speech practice. |