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Развитие государства. Конец ХХ столетия ознаменовался развитием демократических процес. Нравственное, полное смысла
Differences between eastern and western rhetorical traditions.
According to the evidence of the oldest cultural monuments of mankind, rhetoric reaches a high level of development not only in ancient Greece and Rome, traditionally honored by European civilization, but also in the countries of the Ancient East: Egypt, Assyria, Vavilo, and especially in India and China. However, there are noticeable differences between the east and west rhetorical tradition.
They are seen mainly:
• in different types of regulation of speech - it is subject to pre-prescribed rules;
• in different speech addresses.
On the one hand, Eastern tradition focused on a tougher following of the model, on learning and reproducing the proposed finished text.
Ancient monuments contain wide arches of similar samples. For example, in the classical books of Ki-Thai education - "Shu-jing" and "I-li" ("Rites of Good Standing") - examples of speeches at a wedding ceremony, at a dinner party, speeches by government officials, etc.
In ancient India, about 30 canonical arguments-arguments were learned by heart for their use in controversy Western tradition rather focused on the assimilation of general rules for the construction of speech, to which the speaker had to independently apply to each specific situation.
Therefore, the eastern mechanism for preparing the speech was called the final, and the western - matrix.
In the first case, a closed, final set of texts for various cases of life is proposed, in the second - a matrix scheme, using which the speaker creatively generates an open and potentially infinite set of texts.
On the other hand, in the countries of the Ancient East the speech was obychkno designed for narrower audience, than in Ancient Greece and Rome.
The calculation was made primarily on the psychological especially of a person in general, an abstract listener as such (Ancient India), or on a narrow circle of connoisseurs and his own inner Chuv art (Ancient China).
It is not surprising that in China, where speech did not have a truly wide sound, even a single pronunciation norm develops in the Middle Ages.
As a result, especially refined, refined, perifrastichesky forms of verbal expression razvivaktsya (the Old Indian treatise "Hint Light", the Ancient Chinese treatise "Carved Dragon of Graceful Literature", etc. monuments), the most important role is assigned to the artistic perfection of the statement.
The audience in ancient Greece and Rome was significantly more crowded, massive, and as a result, the emphasis was on the ability to convince, on achieving a practical goal by performing. Thus, the merits of Western rhetorical tradition lie in its more creative and functionally oriented character.
The origins of ancient Greek oratory art.
The first evidence of the development of ancient Greek eloquence is found in the epic poems of Homer (VIII-VII centuries BC. e.), which themselves sounded in oral performance. The direct speech of the heroes occupies a distinctive array of the text of the works. Attempts at individualized speech characteristics are already traced here.
Fine diplomacy, taking into account the psychology of the listener, is a complete treatment with different people, the speeches of King Odis are different. For example, after the shipwreck and the death of his raft, the hero is thrown ashore in the peaceful country of the Feaks, all in mud and tine, and all the maids of the nearby Princess Navsikai run away from him in horror. Odysseus was able to awaken confidence in her and persuade him to help, demonstrating his courtesy and goodness, starting the speech with an exquisite detailed compliment to the beauty and charm of the princess.
When describing the speeches of Odysseus during the Trojan War, we are faced with an indication of such a technique known in rhetoric after a long time as an initial pause. Having risen from his place in order to keep his word, Odysseus, having swallowed and clutching the scepter in his hands, spent some time in deep thought. Listeners were ready to decide that a person completely tempted in public speeches was in front of them, but even more so the contrast was when:
... Speeches, like a snow blizzard, rushed from his mouth.
In Homer's poems, the gift of eloquence is surrounded by the greatest praise, pithet. Inspired by speeches, the leader of the Greek rati Agamemnon raises the morale of the troops. In honor, listeners pay attention to the stories and advice of the wise old man Nestor, who is described by Homer as "loud vitality." Even the brave Achilles, his teacher and mentor Phoenix was supposed to teach not only "brave action," but also "good talk." By the very word, Homer, giving him special importance to a figurative assessment, applies a beautiful stable winged epithet, which, already in the 19th century, was the basis of the expression "winged words" (the names of famous people who became popular).
3. The origins of ancient Greek oratory art. The heyday of oratory art in Athens of the V-IV centuries. BC e. Contributed to the material structure of the life of this city-state, it is not for nothing that eloquence is called the "spiritual brainchild of democracy." Important components of the state structure of Athens were the People of the Assembly, the Council of Five Hundred and the jury. The National Assembly (a body resembling the Slavic Veche) solved the most significant, responsible issues of state life: declaring war and concluding peace agreements, signing union treaties, adopting laws, appointing to large state posts, etc. All the free adult male population of the city could take part in it.
At the same time, the audience before which speakers had to speak was one and a half to two thousand people. The Council of Five Hundred was the representative body that ruled the country between the national assemblies. There was also a public discussion of issues for decision-making. Finally, a jury was operating in Athens, the usual number of which was about five hundred people. At the same time, lawyers and prosecutors in the modern sense did not exist the word, and everyone had to stand up for himself, acting as a defendant or plaintiff prosecutor. In such an environment, the speech mass loss of the participants in the process, the ability to make an emotional impression on a crowded jury meeting, was of great importance. Warriors, tearing apart clothes, showed scarring from wounds; the fathers of the family brought to court complained weeping offspring; poets read fragments of works to show the judges their art.
Since not everyone hwa had the talent to put the circumstances of the case in a plausible and self-possessing form, presenting them from the most winning side, many were forced to resort to the services of speech logographers to order, memorizing the texts of speeches prepared by them.
Thus, an oral word in Athens could decide the fate of both an individual citizen and the entire state. Demetrius Falersky put it this way about those times: "the word plays a powerful role, which in the war plays the same lezo, in peaceful life." It is natural that oratory art found here especially fertile conditions for its development.
4. Eloquence of the Athenian strategist Pericles. The eloquence of the Athenians reaches its peak, the highest take-off, the "golden age" in the Pericles era (years of life - about 490-429 BC). Pericles owed much to his gift of eloquence. It was said that on his mouth she herself was visiting with persuasion.
According to the ancient Greek historian Thucydides, by which time he came from a clan hostile to Pericles, but, subjugated by the significance and charm of this outstanding man, later became his ardent supporter, Pericles combined the most important qualities of an ideal statesman: patriotism, wisdom, honesty and eloquence.
The culmination of Pericles's eloquence is recognized as "The tombstone of memory of the Athenians who died in the first year of the Peloponnesian Howl." The Peloponnesian War is a tragic fratricidal war between the Athenian Sea Power and the Spartan Military Union, which led to the weakening of both camps before the Macedonian threat and contributed to the loss of freedom and independence by Greece. Pericles was not the initiator of this war, but as a state deity he had to be responsible for everything that happened. The speech was made in a psychologically difficult situation for the speaker.
He needed to speak against the background of cypress coffins, in which the dead lay, looking to their mothers and widows in their eyes reddened from tears. The performance ended unexpectedly and, according to the first perception, more than strange: the listeners raised Pericles to their hands and carried him through the whole city. The main semantic motives of the speech, which about made such a strong impression on the audience, are the glorification of his hometown, Athens, as the "spiritual school of all Hellas"; affirming the greatness and justice of the democratic ideals in whose name the lives of the victims were given; the theme of eternal memory of them and their invisible presence among the living; a call to valor and steadfastness of spirit. According to the memoirs about her, the speech reached its maximum emotional rise when the speaker spoke of the tragedy of the loss of young lives: "it looks like if spring suddenly came from the seasons." This example of a penetrating and memorable image is given by Aristotle in the treatise Rhetoric.
In general, Pericles, as a speaker, was, according to contemporary estimates, more characterized by even restraint, of special dignity, in which he was opposed to the leader for the sake of the local political group Cleon (a prototype of Leather in the comedy of Aristophanes "Horsemen," in accordance with his original occupation). Cleon, as Plutarch writes, attracting the attention of listeners with a loud scream and blows to the chest, "threw away all decency on the podium."
5. The birth and features of sophistic rhetoric. In turn, rhetoric as a science, as a theoretical knowledge of the Ora of Toronto art, arises in the 60s. V century BC. e., on the island of Sizi, which was a western Greek colony. According to legend, the wives of the Sicilian city of Syracuse suffered greatly from the brutal rule of two tyrants and tirelessly prayed to Zeus the Liberator.
But when this rule finally fell, the desired civil dispute did not come. Anarchy and confusion reigned. All enmity was with everyone, finding out the sins and obis accumulated during the tyranny. Then someone named Korak remembered that the word was designed to bring harmony and harmony to the world, and began to soothe the troubled and fussy demos with skillfully constructed speeches.
After the change of government, a wave of lawsuits swept through the city, where Korak also spoke. The experience of building re-chi in court was the basis of the first textbooks on rhetoric, to which Korak and his student Tisiy created. Here is given the oldest of the definitions of rhetoric as "a servant of persuasion."
Korak and Tisiy were sophists - professional teachers of philosophy and eloquence, who appeared in Greece in the V-IV centuries. BC e. To the famous representatives of sophistic rhetoric, in addition, they belong to Protagor, Frazimah, Gorgiy, and to the "younger sophists" - Isocrates.
The philosophical basis for the development of sophistics was the doctrine of relativity of truth, which ut argued that there was no direct and unambiguous connection between things and ideas about them, between ideas and words. Therefore, there is no single objective truth, and even if it existed, then people would not be given to comprehend it. Protagora's famous lo zung "Man is a measure of all things," inscribed on the heat of humanism, was originally understood precisely as a statement of the subjectivity of any representation. This made it possible to justify any opinions, even directly opposite to each other. The favorite intellectual and rhetorical "anthem-verse" of sophists was the proof and refutation of the same thesis. "Judgment was turned inside out like a glove," which confused and annoyed undisturbed minds.
So, the sophists, opi-sated in one of Plato's dialogues, at first easily refute the idea that wise people learn (after all, they just need to learn the least), and then as easily and gracefully as in a quirky good intellectual dance, they prove it (the greatest success in understanding the sciences is made by initially developed minds). In such mental and verbal "equilibristics" affecting the listener, there was also a negative side (readiness to replace concepts for the sake of external effect, moral elasticity, unprincipled), which influenced the later disapproving meaning of the word sophistics, and positive (flexibility and dialectical thinking). The "bright side of the medal" was meant by the largest German philosopher Ge. Gel, when he admired the sophists: "What a luxury in their dialect! what a ruthlessness! what an emancipation! What a master of thought and word!
6. Opposition to sophistic rhetoric in the person of Socrates and Plato. The illustrious Athenian philosopher Socrates (469-399 BC) himself compared himself with an ovod who inspired concern, boo thought and conscience. The philosopher did not leave behind his written works, teaching in the more valuable living conversations that appeared to him, but the disciples immortalized the originality of his views. Between the rhetoric and philosophical positions of Socrates and the sophists, there was a cardinal confrontation, which was the basis for the Cree of the philosopher against them. The essence of the existing contradictions is still provided in the following table.
Socrates's style of conversation is characterized by the setting of private emerging questions. Having received affirmative answers to them, he fasting quietly and quietly brought the interlocutor to agreement with his thesis.
Modern psychologists believe that such a communicative move - receiving at least three positive answers at the beginning of a convincing dialogue - is deeply justified, since Adre Sat often relaxes, becomes more open to communication and loses readiness for acute confrontation. The famous American specialist on human relations D. Carnegie considered this technique very important in order to persuade the interlocutor to one or another point of view, and called it the "secret of Socrates."
Along with this, the so-called socratic dialogue is promoted in modern pedagogy, when the student seems to rediscover the truth himself, being pushed to this skillfully posed by a system of questions.
One of the favorite students of Socrates Plato (about 428-347 BC) also harshly criticized sophistic rhetoric. e.), which captured the image and views of his teacher, in cha esteem, in the treatise "Gorgiy" directly affecting the rhetorical problem. The author accuses the sofist speakers of chasing success with the public, condoning its tastes; are fond of the outside of things, not penetrating into their essence; pay tribute to the speeches before a mixed and limited crowd, and not to dialogue with the chosen ones. By the "method from the nasty" Plato draws his rhetorical ideal - a speaker who seeks to correct the burrows, to entrench in the souls of listeners good feelings and the desire to know eternal ideas.
7. The largest representatives of individual genera are red. In addition, in each of the main clans of eloquence that stood out in antiquity: in the political, judicial and solemn (hwa or censure), their prominent representatives advanced, some of whom acted in various oratory roles. So, mainly as the largest political speaker about Demosthenes, whose most high-profile court speeches are also politically colored. His rhetorical creativity will be discussed below. The most recognized master of the judicial crass of ancient Greece is Lisius (459-380 BC). He became famous as a logographer - the creator of custom speeches. The popularity of the speaker is evidenced by his extensive clientele, the fact that in ancient times he was credited with a record number of composed speeches (about 425).
The performances prepared by Fox differed:
• liveliness and likelihood of outlining the character of heroes (the art of the so-called etopeia), representing various social groups of the population: soldiers and civilians, people among the rich and wealthy aristocrats;
• restraint and correctness in relation to the details of the life of the enemy, comparable to the speeches of other ethnic speakers;
• Concise introductions and conclusions;
• dynamic and entertaining narrative part outlining the circumstances of the case;
• the purity and transparency of the language, devoid of non-natural rhetorical decorations in the mouth of the customer.
In the field of solemn eloquence, Gorgius's talent shone (483-375 BC). His rhetorical manner with clarity about appeared in the speech "Praise of Elena" (half-dull, half-serious in torture to whitewash Elena the Beautiful in the eyes of contemporaries, the culprit of the bloody Trojan war. For Gorgia-orator, especially ha rakterns:
• belief in the magical and incongruous power of the word. The following program quote from Gorgius became a winged: "The word was led by the greatest lord. The species is small and inconspicuous, and works miracles - fear of stopping and sadness can be distracted, cause joy, increase pity ";
• exceptional ingenuity, variety and hit wisdom in the selection of arguments (practical implementation of their own mustache tank on the fact that "it is necessary to prove to the listener by all the provers");
• special expressiveness of the style, in particular as a result of the spectacular use of antithesis, called the "Gorgian figure" due to the wide involvement of this speaker;
• the mesmerizing singing of speech due to the period of the traditional use of rhythm and embossments of rhyme in prose (representing the so-called figure of equanimity - go-meotelet).
As a prominent representative of political and especially solemn eloquence, Isocrates (436-338 BC) received recognition. e.), head of the elitist rhetorical school. He was distinguished from nature by a quiet voice and timidity in front of a crowd of listeners. Therefore, he distributed his crimes for reading, including public. But the merits of Isocrates were:
• putting forward the "principle of proper," upholding your moral ideals, the need to serve the state and society, educational pathos of speeches;
• scale, thoroughness, analyticism and philosophy in the disclosure of the topic;
• The development of a universal structure of commendable speech, which included praise for the origin of the hero (homeland, ancestors, parents), his education and upbringing, spawning the solicitation of external and internal positive features and comparisons that positively shade the central image;
• the polishing and refinement of the style, the use of period figures (voluminous syntactic structures with opposition to the tauteness of the ascending and descending parts, separated by a pause, which gave speech musicality.
8. The rhetorical activity of Aristotle. The problems of the treatise "Rhetoric." The famous encyclopedic scientist of ancient art Aristotle (384-322 BC. e.), not only a contemporary, but also an od of Demosthenes, from his youth and for 20 years he was a member of the teachings of Plato (the so-called 1st Athenian period of biography). Pla ton called him the mind and hope of the school. Thanks to his original standing and the power of thinking in his views, he did not follow his teacher slavishly and was not afraid to polemize with him (recall his late famous aphorism Plato is a friend to me, but the truth is more expensive). Su has curious information that Aristo taught rhetoric at Plato's school. This voluminous course was entrusted to him in the very first years of his stay at the Academy.
After a while, Aristotle taught, among other disciplines, the subject of poetry, eloquence and etiquette of Alexander the Great, the future heir to the throne. Subsequently, in the suburbs of Athens, Ari Stotel opened its own school - Likey, which gave the name to all subsequent educational institutions of this kind. In Likei, he conducted classes during the walking process, walking with his students around the allerey, which was believed to activate thinking (the 2nd Athenian period of his activities). Among the subjects he taught was rhetoric. The treatise "Rhetoric" arose precisely on the basis of those strictly scientific lectures that Aristotle gave in the mornings to a selected circle of dedicated students. It is possible to assert, in this way, that the rhetoric classes passed through a kind of "red thread" through the biography of the scientist. Next, we will thesis consider the structure and issue of his treatise Rhetoric.
Compositionally, the treatise consists of 3 books. The 1st book defines rhetoric, shows its place in the range of other sciences and arts. The undeniable merit of Aristotle in shaping the definition was to emphasize the universality of rhetoric, as opposed to Plato, who, through the mouth of the hero of his works, Socrates, challenged the independence of this discipline on the grounds that other sciences also resort to the conviction of the truth of their provisions. Aristotle offers such an interpretation of the concept of rhetoric, which turns this supposedly flaw into a great dignity: "Rhetoric is the ability to find possible ways of persuading about each given subject." The same book of the treatise presents a classification of possible ways of persuasion.
Among them, in particular, the proof of attitude to the logos (rational-logical content of speech), the proof of attitude to the ethos (demonstration of the positive aspects of the moral appearance of the speaker) and the evidence of pathos (emotional ok raska of the performance, appeal to the feelings of listeners) stand out/
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