EXERCISES
Find in the text the English equivalents to:
гораздо привычнее; эксцентричный математик; водить грузо вик; держать магазин; винить за; развязать кампанию против; на рушитель; отклонить(ся); оставаться постоянным; подчеркнуть (усилить); достаточно хороший; несмотря на; плодовитый изобре татель; отмычка; член королевского общества; сокрушаться об ошибках; выполнить при помощи пара; гений; изобретательный; столкнуться с трудностями; забросить проект; далеко впереди; начать сначала; по предположению; в два раза длиннее; удачно сказано!
Answer the following questions:
What irritated and bored Charles Babbage?
Prove that Babbage was a prolific inventor.
What kind of machine was the Difference Engine?
What was the Babbage’s reason for abandoning the project?
Contrast the Difference and the Analytical Engine.
Who has the honor of being the world’s first computer program mer?
What do you know about Ada Lovelace (as a lady and as a program
mer)?
Charles Babage is a computer Guru, isn’t he?
Put the proper words into sentences
effort, obsolete, track, arithmetic, device, mathematicians, construct, Engine.
The famous philosophers Leibniz and Pascal both ... somewhat primi tive calculating ...
After a great deal of time and ..., a working model of the Difference ...
was...
Although the punched card is now becoming ..., it was of critical importance in the development of the computer.
An abacus is a ... that allows the operator to keep ... of numbers while doing the basic ... operations.
A square-shaped wheel wouldn’t be ... because it wouldn’t roll easily.
Charles Babbage disliked doing the great amount of... that... had to perform in course of solving problems.
“Automating” means ... machines to do jobs that people do.
Construct other sentences in these patterns:
The inventor of the 19th century computer was a figure far more common in fiction than in real life.
Thev just happen to do mathematics instead of filling teeth.
Despite his eccentricities, Babbage was a genius.
If this were true, the population of the earth would remain con stant.
1 wish to God these calculations had been executed by steam.
We might wonder today whether or not something could be done by nuclear energy.
The government had no intention of repeating its mistakes. Nor did
Babbage’s abrasive personality help his cause any.
Even though the Analytical Engine was never completed, the pro gram for it was written.
Her notes turned out to be twice as long as the paper itself.
iLifi for Analytical Engine he never completed that we honor Bab bage as “father of the computer.”
TEXT HI. BABBAGE’S DREAM COME TRUE
The Harvard Mark I. A hundred years passed before a machine like the one Babbage conceived was actually built. This occurred in 1944, when Howard Aiken of Harvard University completed the Harvard Mark I Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator.
Aiken was not familiar with the Analytical Engine when he de signed the Mark I. Later, after people had pointed out Babbage’s work to him, he was amazed to learn how many of his ideas Bab bage had anticipated.
The Mark 1 is the closest thing to the Analytical Engine that has ever been built or ever will be. It was controlled by a punched paper tape, which played the same role as Babbage’s punched cards. Like the Analytical Engine, it was basically mechanical. How ever, it was driven by electricity instead of steam. Electricity also served to transmit information from one part of the machine to another, replacing the complex mechanical linkages that Babbage had proposed. Using electricity (which had only been a laboratory curiosity in Babbage’s time) made the difference between success and failure.
But, along with several other electromechanical computers built at about the same time, the Mark I was scarcely finished before it was obsolete. The electromechanical machines simply were not fast
enough. Their speed was seriously limited by the time required for mechanical parts to move from one position to another. For in stance, the Mark I took six seconds for amultiplication and twelve for a division; this was only five or six times faster than what a human with an old desk calculator could do.
ENIAC. What was needed was a machine whose computing, con trol, and memory elements were completely electrical. Then the speed of operation would be limited not by the speed of mechani cal moving parts but by the much greater speed of moving elec trons.
In the late 1930s, John V. Atanasoff of Iowa State College demon strated the elements of an electronic computer. Though his work did not become widely known, it did influence the thinking of John W. Mauchly, one of the designers of ENIAC.
ENIAC — Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer — was the machine that rendered the electromechanical computers obso lete. ENIAC used vacuum tubes for computing and memory. For control, it used an electrical plug board, like a telephone switch board. The connections on the plug board specified the sequence of operations ENIAC would carry out.
ENIAC was 500 times as fast as the best electromechanical com puter. A problem that took one minute to solve on ENIAC would require eight to ten hours on an electromechanical machine. After ENIAC, all computers would be electronic.
ENIAC was the first of many computers with acronyms for names. The same tradition gave us EDVAC, UNIVAC, JOHNIAC, 1L- LIAC, and even MANIAC.
EDVAC. The Electronic Discrete Variable Computer — ED VAC — was constructed at about the same time as ENIAC. But EDVAC, influenced by the ideas of the brilliant Hungarian- American mathematician John von Neumann, was by far the more advanced of the two machines. Two innovations that first appeared in EDVAC have been incorporated in almost every computer since.
First, EDVAC used binary notation to represent numbers inside the machine. Binary notation is a system for writing numbers that uses only two digits (0 and 1), instead of the ten digits (0-9) used in the conventional decimal notation. Binary notation is now recognized as the simplest way of representing numbers in an elec tronic machine.
Second, EDVAC’s program was stored in the machine’s memory, just like the data. Previous computers had stored the program exter nally on punched tapes or plug boards. Since the programs were stored the same way the datawere, one program could manipulate another program as if it were data. We will see that such program- manipulating programs play a crucial role in modern computer systems.
A stored-program computer — one whose program is stored in memory in the same form as its data — is usually called a von Neumann machine in honor of the originator of the stored-pro- gram concept.
From the 1940s to the present, the technology used to build com puters has gone through several revolutions. People sometimes speak of different generations of computers, with each generation using a different technology.
The First Generation. First-generation computers prevailed in the 1940s and for much of the 1950s. They used vacuum tubes for calculation, control, and sometimes for memory as well. First- generation machines used several other ingenious devices for memory. In one, for instance, information was stored as sound waves circulating in a column of mercury. Since all these first-gen eration memories are now obsolete, no further mention will be made of them.
Vacuum tubes are bulky, unreliable, energy consuming, and gen erate large amounts of heat. As long as computers were tied down to vacuum tube technology, they could only be bulky, cumber some, and expensive.
The Second Generation. In the late 1950s, the transistor became available to replace the vacuum tube. A transistor, which is only slightly larger than a kernel of corn, generates little heat and enjoys long life.
At about the same time, the magnetic-core memory was intro duced. This consisted of a latticework of wires on which were strung tiny, doughnut-shaped beads called cores. Electric currents flowing in the wires stored information by magnetizing the cores. Informa tion could be stored in core memory or retrieved from it in about a millionth of a second.
Core memory dominated the high-speed memory scene for much of the second and third generations. To programmers during this period, core and high-speed memory were synonymous.
The Third Generation. The early 1960s saw the introduction of in tegrated circuits, which incorporated hundreds of transistors on a single silicon chi p. The chip itself was small enough to fit on the end of your finger; after being mounted in a protective package, it still would fit in the palm of your hand. With integrated circuits, computers could be made even smaller, less expensive, and more reliable.
(21 Integrated circuits made possible minicomputers, tabletop comput ers small enough and inexpensive enough to find a place in the classroom and the scientific laboratory.
In the late 1960s, integrated circuits began to be used for high speed memory, providing some competition for magnetic-core memory. The trend toward integrated-circuit memory has contin ued until today, when it has largely replaced magnetic-core mem ory.
The most recent jump in computer technology came with the introduction of large-scale integrated circuits, often referred to simply as chips. Whereas the older integrated circuits contained hundred of transistors, the new ones contain thousands or tens of thou sands.
It is the large-scale integrated circuits that make possible the mi croprocessors and microcomputers. They also make possible com pact, inexpensive, high-speed, high-capacity integrated-circuit memory.
All these recent developments have resulted in a microprocessor revolution, which began in the middle 1970s and for which there is no end in sight.
The Fourth Generation. In addition to the common applications of digital watches, pocket calculators, and personal computers, you can find microprocessors — the general-purpose processor-on-a- chip — in virtually every machine in the home or business — microwave ovens, cars, copy machines, TV sets, and so on. Com puters today are hundred times smaller than those of the first gene ration, and asingle chip is far more powerful than ENIAC.
The Fifth Generation. The term was coined by the Japanese to describe the powerful, intelligent computers they wanted to build by the mid-1990s. Since then it has become an umbrella term, encompassing many research fields in the computer industry. Key areas of ongoing research are artificial intelligence (Al), expert systems, and natural language.
EXERCISES
Find in the text the English equivalents to:
задумать; быть знакомым с; предвкушать; лабораторный курь ез; механические соединения; телефонный коммутатор; последова тельность операций; потребовалась минута для решения; под влиянием идей; акроним для названия; тогда как; играть решающую роль; в честь кого-то; ртутный столбик; энергоемкий; вырабаты вать большое количество тепла; громоздкий; стать доступным; извлекать из памяти; поместиться на ладони (на кончике пальца); скачок в технике; включать; продолжающиеся исследования; приду мать термин; всеохватывающий термин (номинация).
Give synonyms to:
to encompass, bulky, simply, scarcely, ongoing, linkage, to conceive, to anticipate, to be familiar with, fast, advanced, obsolete.
Give antonyms to:
success, externally, to store, energy-consuming, cumbersome, expen sive, binary notation, end in sight, obsolete.
Put the proper words into sentences:
analytical, digital, unreliable, sophisticated, solve, core, processor, computations, an integral circuit.
The Difference Engine could ... equations and led to another calcu lating machine, the ... Engine, which embodied the key parts of a computer system: an input device, a ..., a control unit, a storage place, and an output device.
Ada Lovelace helped to develop instructions for carrying out ... on Babbage machine.
J. Atanasoff devised the first... computer to work by electronic means.
First-generation computers were ..., the main form of memory be ing magnetic...
In the third generation software became more...
What was the name of the first ... computer to work electronically?
When electricity passed through the ..., it could be magnetized as either “ofF’ or “on”.
A ...is acomplete electronic circuit on asmall chip of silicon.
Answer the following questions:
V.
What was the main shortcoming of the Mark 1 and the other elec tromechanical computers?
What is an acronym? Give examples of acronyms.
What was the distinguishing feature of ENIAC?
What were the two distinguishing features of EDVAC?
What is a von Neumann machine?
Describe the technological features characteristic of each computer generation.
What type of computer memory was once so widely used that its name became almost synonymous with “high-speed memory”?
What technological developments made (a) minicomputers and (b) microcomputers possible?
Construct other sentences in these patterns:
It was a machine like the one Babbage conceived.
That has ever been or ever will be.
Using electricity made the difference between success and failure.
This work did influence the thinking of the designers of ENIAC.
It took one minute to solve a problem on ENIAC.
EDVAC was hv far the more advanced of the two machines.
7.0ne program could manipulate another program as if it were data.
People sometimes speak of different generations of computers, with each generation using a different technology.
Integrated circuits made possible minicomputers, small enough to
find place in the classroom.
iLis the large-scale integrated circuits thai make possible micropro
cessors.
Make a timeline map: )
Inventors
Times
Inventions/
Developments
Von Neumann
recent times
Analytical Engine
Abacus
17th century
Pascal
(Leibniz)
Herman Hollerith
World War II
ENIAC/vacuum
tubes
Times
|
Inventions/
Developments
|
I nventors
|
thousands ' of years ago
|
Primitive
calculating devices
|
George Boole
|
19th century
|
Transistors, printed circuits, microchips
|
Charles "Babbage
|
early 20th century
|
StorejJ programs
|
Ada Lovelace
|
after
World War II
|
Mechanical calculator
|
Jobs / Wozniak
|
in 1944
|
Punched card
|
Aiken
|
|
First computer program First PC
First digital computer, Mark 1
|
Atanasoff / Berry
|
Translate into English
Орудия — это любые предметы помимо частей нашего соб ственного тела, которые мы используем, чтобы помочь себе выполнить работу.
Антропологи считают, что использование орудий могло бы помочь эволюции человекоподобных существ и превращению их в людей; в обществе, использующем орудия, ловкость рук и ум значат гораздо больше, чем грубая сила. Умные, а не сильные, унаследовали Землю.
Нас интересуют машины, которые классифицируют и моди фицируют информацию, а не просто передают ее или хранят.
Калькуляторы, сделанные Паскалем и Лейбницем, были не надежны, так как технология того времени была не в состоянии производить детали с достаточной точностью.
Компьютер, полностью современный по концепции, был за думан в ЗОх годах 19 века.
Бэббидж был плодотворным изобретателем, его разработки включают такие, как офтальмоскоп, отмычки, спидометр,
«скотосбрасыватель» и др. Несмотря на свою эксцентричность, он был гением.
Одной из причин, по которой Бэббидж забросил свою разно стную машину, была гораздо лучшая идея, пришедшая ему в голову. Вдохновленный жаккардовым станком, управляемым перфокартами, Бэббидж захотел сделать калькулятор, управляемый перфокартами.
Именно из-за аналитической машины, которую он никогда не завершил, Бэббидж имеет честь называться «отцом компью тера».
Автор демонстрационной программы для аналитической ма шины Ада Ловлис стала первым в мире компьютерным про граммистом. По предложению Бэббиджа, переводя статью об аналитической машине, написанную итальянским инженером по-французски, она добавила собственные замечания, которые оказались в два раза длиннее самой статьи.
Аналитическая машина «ткет» алгебраические узоры точно так же, как станок Жаккарда ткет цветы и листья. Действительно удачно сказано!
Модель I — самая близкая к аналитической машина, которая когда-либо была или будет создана.
Наряду с несколькими другими электромеханическими ком пьютерами, построенными приблизительно в то же время, Модель I устарела сразу же после того, как была завершена.
Люди иногда говорят о различных поколениях компьютеров, причем каждое поколение использует разную технологию. Машины первого поколения-использовал и несколько хитро умных устройств для запоминания. В одном, например, информация хранилась в качестве звуковых волн, циркулирующих в столбике ртути.
Вакуумные лампы были громоздкими, ненадежными, энерго емкими и вырабатывали огромное количество тепла.
Транзистор размером чуть больше ядрышка хлебного зерна
вырабатывает мало тепла и живет долго.
В начале 60х наблюдалось внедрение интегральных схем, которые включали сотни транзисторов на одном силиконовом чипе. Именно большие интегральные схемы сделали возможными микропроцессоры и микрокомпьютеры.
Сегодняшние компьютеры раз в 100 меньше, чем компьютеры
1го поколения, а каждый отдельный чип гораздо мощнее EN1AC.
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