Задания. Содержание Introduction
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3. Выберите из приведенного списка термины, соответствующие данным определениям.
Unit 7 I. Information for study. Text A Прочтите следующую информацию и запишите на полях основные термины, связанные с тематикой текста. DEMAND AND SUPPLY Demand is the quantity of a good buyers wish to purchase at each conceivable price. Thus demand is not a particular quantity, such as six bars of chocolate, but rather a full description of the quantity of chocolate the buyer would purchase at each and every price which might be charged. The first column of Table 2 shows a range of prices for bars of chocolate. The second column shows the quantities that might be demanded at these prices. Even when chocolate is free, only a finite amount will be wanted. People get sick from eating too much chocolate. As the price of chocolate rises, the quantity demanded falls, other things equal. We have assumed that nobody will buy any chocolate when the price is more than £0.40 per bar. Taken together, columns (1) and (2) describe the demand for chocolate as a function of its price (Table 2). Supply is the quantity of a good sellers wish to sell at each conceivable price. Again, supply is not a particular quantity but a complete description of the quantity that sellers would like to sell at each and every possible price. The third column of Table 2 shows how much chocolate sellers wish to sell at each price. Chocolate cannot be produced for nothing. Nobody would wish to supply if they receive a zero price. In our example, it takes a price of at least £0.20 per bar before there is any incentive to supply chocolate. At higher prices it becomes increasingly lucrative to supply chocolate bars and there is a corresponding increase in the quantity of bars that would be supplied. Taken together, columns (1) and (3) describe the supply of chocolate bars as a function of their price. TABLE 2. THE DEMAND FOR AND SUPPLY OF CHOCOLATE
Notice the distinction between demand and the quantity demanded. Demand describes the behaviour of buyers at every price. At a particular price such as £0.30, there is a particular quantity demanded, namely 80 million bars/year. The term ‘quantity demanded’ makes sense only in relation to a particular price. A similar distinction applies to supply and quantity supplied. In everyday language, we would say that when the demand for football tickets exceeds their supply some people will not get into the ground. Economists must be more precise. At the price charged for tickets, the quantity demanded exceeded the quantity supplied. Although the size of the ground sets an upper limit on the quantity of tickets that can be supplied, a higher ticket price would have reduced the quantity demanded, perhaps leaving empty space in the ground. Yet there has been no change in demand, the schedule describing how many people want admission at each possible ticket price. The quantity demanded has changed because the price has changed. We must recognize that the demand schedule relating price and quantity demanded and the supply schedule relating price and quantity supplied are each constructed on the assumption of ‘other things equal’. In the demand for tube tickets, the ‘other things’ were the cost of alternative modes of transport. In the demand for football tickets, one of the ‘other things’ that is important is whether or not the game is being shown on television. If it is, the quantity of tickets demanded at each and every price will be lower than if the game is not televised. To understand how a market works, we must first explain why demand and supply are what they are. (Is the game on television? Has the ground capacity been extended by building a new stand?) Then we must examine how the price adjusts to balance the quantities supplied and demanded, given the underlying supply and demand schedules relating quantity to price. Let us think again about the market for chocolate described in Table 2. Other things equal, the lower...(чем ниже...)the price of chocolate, the higher... (тем выше...)the quantity demanded. Other things equal, the higher the price of chocolate, the higher the quantity supplied. A campaign by dentists warning of the effect of chocolate on tooth decay, or a fall in household incomes, would change the ‘other things’ relevant to the demand for chocolate. Either of these changes would reduce the demand for chocolate, reducing the quantities demanded at each price. Cheaper cocoa beans, or technical advances in packaging chocolate bars, would change the ‘other things’ relevant to the supply of chocolate bars. They would tend to increase the supply of chocolate bars, increasing the quantity supplied at each possible price. II. Exercises 1. Переведите текст на русский язык, используя словарь в конце урока. 2. Найдите в тексте ответы на следующие вопросы и запишите их. 1) What is a market? 2) What 2 kinds of market did you learn about from the text? 3) What economic functions do these kinds of market perform? 4) Can the price and quantity be considered separately? 5) What do prices guide? 6) What do we need to do to understand the process of the prices’ action at a typical market? 7) What are the essential features on which a model of a typical market should concentrate? 8) What can we study, after making a model, to see how a market works in practice? 9) What is demand? 10) What is supply? 11) What is the distinction between demand and the quantity demanded? 12) What is the distinction between supply and the quantity supplied? 3. К выделенным жирным шрифтом словам в тексте подберите близкие по значению слова из следующего списка: possible, profitable, limited, quantity, table, to provide, place, mainly. 4. Подчеркните в тексте предложения, соответствующие по смыслу данным ниже. 1) При помощи рынка продавцы и покупатели входят в контакт для обмена товарами и услугами. 2) Цены устанавливаются так, чтобы уравновесить спрос и предложение. 3) По мере того, как цена на товар растет, спрос на этот товар падает. 4) На фондовой бирже работают посредники, которые заключают сделки от имени своих клиентов. 5) При слишком низкой цене у продавцов нет стимула поставлять товар. 6) Чтобы понять, как работает рынок, необходимо изучить поведение покупателей и поведение продавцов. 7) Цены влияют на общество, определяя его выбор, что, как и для кого покупать. 8) Спрос - это количество товара, которое покупатели хотят купить по каждой возможной цене. 9) Предложение - это количество товара, которое продавцы хотят продать по каждой возможной цене. 5. Образуйте существительные от данных глаголов с помощью суффиксов -ion, -ment.Проверьте их по тексту и переведите их. to discuss, to recognize, to transact, to arrange, to establish, to assume, to produce, to consume, to interact, to describe. 6. Образуйте наречия от данных прилагательных с помощью суффикса -ly и переведите их chief, physical, superficial, separate, simultaneous, possible, particular, conceivable, complete, precise. 7. Изложите краткое содержание текста А на английском языке в письменной форме. 8. Прочтите список ключевых слов к тексту В: eduilibrium - равновесие equilibrium price - равновесная цена specifically - в особенности to combine - объединять opposite - противоположный intermediate - промежуточный equilibrium quantity - равновесное количество shortage - нехватка, дефицит excess demand - избыточный спрос to realize - понимать excess supply - избыточное предложение stock - запас to bring about - осуществлять expensive - дорогой naturally - естественно to clear - освободить, распродавать move - шаг price-cutting - снижение цены to reach - достигать in reverse - задним ходом to run out - заканчиваться to ration – нормировать 9. Прослушайте текст В на кассете 2 - 3 раза и постарайтесь понять его. 10. Напишите краткое изложение текста на русском языке. 11. Выберите утверждения, которые соответствуют содержанию текста Вх): 1) At low prices the demand for chocolate bars exceeds the quantity supplied. 2) If the price is high the demand is also high. 3) At some intermediate price the quantity demanded just equals the quantity supplied. 4) At the equilibrium price the demand for the goods exceeds the quantity supplied. 5) When economists say there is excess demand they really mean the quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied at this price. 6) If the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied, we have a shortage of goods. 7) If the quantity supplied exceeds the quantity demanded, sellers will be left with stock they can’t sell. 12. Выскажите свое мнение по содержанию текстов А и В. III. Vocabulary to Text A
IV. Test 1. Выберите из колонки справа по смыслу слова, пропущенные в предложениях.
2. Выберите существительное, которое может следовать за данным глаголом:
3. Выберите из приведенного списка термины, соответствующие данным определениям.
Unit 8 I. Information for Study. Text A Прочтите следующую информацию и запишите на полях основные термины, связанные с тематикой текста. THE PRICE OF RELATED GOODS Suppose, we study the demand for tube travel. A rise in bus fares or petrol prices would increase the quantity of tube travel demanded at each possible price. In everyday language, we think of buses and private cars as substitutes for the tube. Loosely speaking, this means that a journey may be made by bus or car instead of by tube. More precisely, an increase in the price of buses or cars will lead to an increase in the demand for tube travel. Economists use an even more precise definition of substitutes but everyday language gives the right idea of what we mean. Similarly, everyday language suggests that petrol and cars are complements because you cannot use a car without also using petrol. A rise in the price of petrol tends to reduce the demand for cars. How do these ideas about substitutes and complements relate to the demand for chocolate bars? Clearly, other sweets (mint drops and jelly babies) are substitutes for chocolate. We expect an increase in the price of other sweets to increase the quantity of chocolate demanded at each possible chocolate price, as people substitute away from other sweets towards chocolate. If people buy chocolate to eat at the cinema, films would be a complement for bars of chocolate. A rise in the price of cinema tickets would reduce the demand for chocolate since fewer people will go to the cinema. Nevertheless, it is difficult to think of a lot of goods that are complements for chocolate. This suggests, correctly, that most of the time goods are substitutes for each other. Complementarity, while present in many instances, is usually a more specific feature (record players and records, coffee and milk, shoes and shoelaces). Before we leave the influence of prices of related goods on the demand for a particular commodity, it should be noted that the development of new products can be viewed within this framework. Technological advances that make possible hand calculators, low fuel consumption cars, or low-calorie beer affect the demand for related goods. One way to think about this is to say that the new product had always been available, but previously its price had been prohibitively high so that nobody could afford it. The technological advance enables the new product to be made available at a much lower price. This will stimulate demand for goods that are complements to the new product (video games may increase the demand for televisions on which they can be played in the home) but reduce the demand for substitutes for the new product (being able to watch films on a home video reduces the demand for going to the cinema). CONSUMER INCOMES Demand is also influenced by consumer income.When incomes rise, the demand for most goods increases. Typically, consumers buy more of everything. However, there are exceptions. A normal good is a good for which demand increases when incomes rise. An inferior good is a good for which demand falls when incomes rise. As their name suggests, most goods are normal goods. An example of an inferior good might be cheap but nasty cuts of meat. As household incomes rise, households spend absolutely less on cheap cuts and more on better cuts of meat such as steaks. Inferior goods are typically cheap but low-quality goods which people would prefer not to buy if they could afford to spend a little more. TASTES We must also consider consumer tastes or preferences. In part, these are shaped by convenience, custom, and social attitudes. When the Beatles and the Rolling Stones first became popular, the demand for haircuts suddenly fell. The fashion for the mini-skirt reduced the demand for textile material. More recently, the emphasis on health and fitness has increased the demand for jogging equipment, health foods, and sports facilities while reducing the demand for cream cakes, butter, and cigarettes. II. Exercises 1. Переведите текст на русский язык, используя словарь в конце урока, обращая внимание на перевод терминов. 2. Найдите в тексте ответы на поставленные вопросы и запишите их. 1) What three “other” things are relevant to demand curves? 2) What is the relation between bus fares or petrol prices and the quantity of tube travels? 3) What is the relation between buses and private cars and the tube? 4) Why is petrol a complement for a car? 5) What are substitutes for chocolate bars? 6) Why can films be a complement for chocolate bars? 7) How do technological advances affect the demand for complements to a new product? 8) How do technological advances affect the demand for substitutes for a new product? 9) What happens to the demand for normal goods when consumer incomes rise? 10) What happens to the demand for inferior goods when consumer incomes rise? 11) What do consumer tastes depend on? 3. К выделенным жирным шрифтом словам в тексте подберите близкие по значению слова из следующего списка: position, habit, user, preferences, low-quality good, exact, equivalent. 4. Подчеркните в тексте A предложения, соответствующие по смыслу данным ниже: 1) Увеличение платы за автобус или цены на бензин приводит к увеличению спроса на метро. 2) Автобусы и частные машины являются заменителями метро. 3) Машины и бензин дополняют друг друга, т.к. нельзя использовать машины без бензина. 4) Многие вещи взаимно дополняют друг друга, как, например, проигрыватели и пластинки, кофе и молоко, ботинки и шнурки, так что это явление очень часто встречается. 5) Так как цены на сопутствующие товары влияют на спрос на определенный товар, то разработки новых товаров можно рассматривать с этой точки зрения. 6) Когда доходы потребителей растут, увеличивается спрос на хорошие товары. 7) На товары низкого качества спрос падает при росте доходов потребителей. 8) Потребительские вкусы зависят от удобств, обычаев и общественного положения. 5. Образуйте наречия от данных прилагательных. Переведите их. previous, prohibitive, possible, correct, particular, usual, typical, technological, normal, recent. 6. Изложите краткое содержание текста А на английском языке в письменной форме. 7. Прочтите список ключевых слов к тексту В: shifts - сдвиги, изменения underlying factors - основополагающие факторы to draw (drew) - чертить to shift - сдвинуться to sketch - рисовать transition - переход to put upward pressure - оказывать давление снизу вверх to single out - выделить TABLE 3. ICE-CREAM PRICES AND CHOCOLATE DEMAND
FIGURE 4. ICE-CREAM PRICES AND CHOCOLATE DEMAND  8. Прослушайте 2-3 раза и постарайтесь понять текст В на кассете. Обратите внимание на таблицу 3 и рисунок 4. 9. Дайте краткое изложение текста на русском языке. 10. Выберите утверждения, которые соответствуют содержанию текста Вх) : 1) Ice-cream could not be a substitute for chocolate. 2) At each chocolate price there is a larger quantity demanded of chocolate when ice-cream prices are low. 3) When the price of ice-cream rises people substitute chocolate for ice-cream and we have excess demand for chocolate. 4) The effect of excess demand is that the price of chocolate bars rises until it reaches a new equilibrium price. 5) The higher price reduces the quantity demanded. 6) A normal good is a good for which demand reduces when incomes rise. 7) People always tend to buy cheap goods if their incomes are low. 8) When incomes rise, the demand for most goods falls. III. Vocabulary to Text A1
IV. Test 1. Выберите из колонки справа по смыслу слова, пропущенные в предложениях.
2. Выберите существительное, которое может следовать за данным глаголом:
3. Выберите из приведенного списка термины, соответствующие данным определениям.
Unit 9 I. Information for Study. Text A Прочтите следующую информацию и запишите на полях основные термины, связанные с тематикой текста. OUTPUT SUPPLY REVENUES, COSTS, AND PROFITS A firm’s revenue is the amount it earns by selling goods or services in a given period such as a year. The firm’s costs are the expenses incurred in producing goods or services during the period. Profits are the excess of revenues over costs. Thus we can write
Although these ideas are simple, in practice the calculation of revenues, costs, and profits for a large business is complicated. Otherwise we would not need so many accountants. We begin with a simple example. Rent-a-Person is a firm that hires people whom it then rents out to other firms that need temporary workers. Rent-a-Person charges £10 per hour per worker but pays its workers only £7 per hour. During 1987 it rented 100 000 hours of labour. Business expenses, including leasing an office, buying advertising space, and paying telephone bills, came to £200 000. Figure 5 shows the income statement or profit-and-loss account for 1987. Profits or net income before taxes were £100 000. Taxes to central government (corporation tax) plus taxes to local government (rates assessed on some of the property the firm owned) came to £25 000. Rent-a-Person’s after-tax profits in 1987 were £75 000. Now we can discuss some of the complications in calculating profits. OUTSTANDING BILLS People do not always pay their bills immediately. At the end of 1987, Rent-a-Person has not been paid for all the workers it hired out during the year. On the other hand, it hasn’t paid its telephone bill for December. From an economic viewpoint, the right definition of revenues and costs relates to the activities carried out during the year whether or not payments have yet been made.
This distinction between economic revenues and costs and actual receipts and payments raises the important concept of cash flow. A firm’s cash flow is the net amount of money actually received during the period. Profitable firms may still have a poor cash flow, for example when customers are slow to pay their bills. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
