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Раздел содержит научно-популярные и общетехнические тексты. Их тематика понятна читателю, независимо от его специальности. Язык статей интересен и прост. Он содержит характерные для английского текста лексические и фразеологические единицы, а также типичные грамматические конструкции (элементарные и сложные обороты: инфинитивные, причастные, герундиальные; бессоюзное соединение придаточных предложений, модальные глаголы и др.). Языковая структура текстов представляет собой эффективный материал для перехода к чтению и переводу оригинальной литературы по специальности. В результате выполнения вопросно-ответных заданий формируется достаточный запас общенаучной и общетехнической лексики. Тематика статей интересна для ведения дискуссий, следовательно, для развития устной речи, коммуникативных умений рассуждать, отстаивать свою точку зрения, опровергать, делать выводы и т.д. Тексты можно использовать для: тренинга формальных признаков структур при изучении грамматического справочника, например, просмотрите текст и опознайте существительные по суффиксам, объясните их значения или просмотрите текст и опознайте глаголы-сказуемые по их формальным признакам, назовите модели, по которым построены эти предложения и т.д.; «грамматического» чтения и учебного письменного либо устного перевода; «собственно» чтения без перевода на русский язык, на понимание главной мысли текста или другой информации, посредством целого спектра заданий таких как множественный выбор, верное/неверное утверждение, дополнение недостающей информации и т.д.; чтения вслух – беглого произношения фраз с соблюдением правил ударения и ритма в связном тексте; устной и письменной речи – самостоятельного построения высказываний в заданной ситуации. Air-Pollution Control Clean air, an essential component of a healthful environment, is a mixture of many different gases. Two gases predominate: nitrogen, which makes up 78 percent of the volume clean dry air, and oxygen, which makes up 21%. In the Earth’s atmosphere, water vapour is also a significant component but the most variable one, ranging from 0,01 to 4% by volume, its concentration in air varying daily and seasonally, as well as geographically. Air is considered to be polluted when it contains certain substances in concentrations high enough to cause harm of undesirable effects. The atmosphere is susceptible (подвержена) to pollution from natural sources as well as from human activities. Only pollution caused by human activities, such as industry and transportation is subject to mitigation and control. Beginning in the 19th century, increasing use of fossil fuels intensified the severity and frequency of air-pollution episodes. It was not until the middle of the 20th century, that attempts were made to regulate or limit emissions of air pollutants from stationary or mobile sources (i.e., gasoline – powered highway vehicles) and to control air quality on both regional and local scales. The focus of air pollution regulation in industrialized countries was initially on protecting outdoor air quality. This involved the control of a small number of pollutants known to contribute to urban smog and chronic public health problems. Toward the end of the 20th century, the dangerous effects of trace (ионов) amounts of many other air pollutants were recognized, and emission regulations were implemented. Long-term effects of certain substances on atmospheric chemistry and climate were also observed at that time. Questions to be answered (in writing): Which air components predominate in clean air of a healthful environment? When is air considered to be polluted? What kind of pollutions is subject (подлежит) to mitigation and control? Generation of Oil Oil is generated in sedimentary basins. These basins are shallow depressions on the continents that have intermittently (прерывисто, перемежаясь) been covered with seawater, or offshore basins on continental shelves. They are hundreds of square kilometers in area and contain sediments of three types: 1) rock particles varying from sands to clay muds, which were eroded from mountains and were carried to the basins by streams; 2) biochemical and chemical precipitates such as limestone gypsum, anhydrite; 3) organic matter from the plants and animals that lived in the sea or were carried in by rivers. The third type of sediment, the organic matter, is the source of petroleum. Evidence (свидетельство) for this is the fact that petroleum contains small amounts of several substances that could have come only from living things. Examples of these are porphyry related to (родственный) hemi and chlorophyll. It is believed that oil is generated from organic matter in two ways. A small amount probably less than 10 % comes directly from the hydrocarbons (углеводородные соединения) that marine organisms form as part of their living cells. The second process, by which about 90 % of the oil is formed, involves the formation of hydrocarbons from the decay and alteration of buried, organic matter. Nearly all of the hydrocarbons containing up to 10 carbon atoms are formed in this manner. By the time the sediments are buried to depths of 500–700 m, enough hydrocarbons have been generated to enable a commercial oil field to form under favourable accumulation conditions. It is estimated there are 6000x109 tons of petroleum in the reservoir rocks of the continents and continental shelves of the world. Questions to be answered (in writing):  Where is oil generated? What are the types of sediments contained in sedimentary basins? How much petroleum is available in reservoir rocks (of the world)? Automobile Automobile is a general term for a self-propelled, trackless (нерельсовый; негусеничный), personal or public carrier, which includes passenger cars, recreational vehicles, taxis and buses used to transport people in cities, on highways, or across country. Passenger cars are available in several body styles and in various sizes. Passenger cars are equipped with four-stroke internal combustion engines as the source of motive power. Many commercial vehicles are equipped with diesel engines. Diesel engines are used successfully in several models of passenger car, too. The vertical profile of the engine is reduced as much as possible to achieve a low hood (капот) line and thus an unobstructed view for the driver. Engines are rated (to rate – оценивать) for output by the number of cylinders, cubic-inch displacement (CID – объём), horsepower, and miles per gallon. Single-plate or multiple-disk clutches transfer the engine output to the transmission, drive shaft, rear axle, and rear wheels. Conventional four or five-speed transmission may be manual, semiautomatic, or automatic types, with overdrive available as an optional added speed. Among the numerous types of steering systems are reciprocating-ball, worm-and-sector, or worm-and-roller units. These systems provide vehicle stability in turns and directional control. Suspension (подвеска) coil springs, leaf-springs, air-suspension systems, or torsion bars are used in conjunction with shock absorbers to improve ride comfort and roadability (сцепление). Service brakes may be drum-type on all four wheels, fixed- or floating-caliper types on front wheels, or a combination of both for mechanical manual operation or optional power assist. Parking brakes are usually integrated mechanically with rear-wheel drum service brakes, or they can be a separate drive shaft-type unit. Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. What does the term automobile include? 2. What are the available models of passenger cars? 3. How are car engines rated? 4. What is the difference between service brakes and parking brakes? Chemistry The science of chemistry includes a study of the properties composition and structure of matter, the changes in structure and composition which matter undergoes, and the accompanying energy changes. Today the objective of a chemist is to aid in the interpretation of the universe. Much progress has been made toward meeting this objective, because much is known about not only the structure and composition of many materials on the Earth, but also about those of the planets, the satellites, the stars, and the materials of interstellar space. The success of chemistry is largely attributed to the use of the scientific method, although not all the discoveries are made by planned research: many of them are made by trial and error and by accident. Nevertheless, the procedure of observation, classification, theorizing, and experimentation to test the theory, runs throughout this entire service. The huge problem of interpreting the universe is considerably simplified by breaking it down to smaller problems by classifying the great variety of materials in the universe into the two great entities, energy and matter. Energy can be classified as potential or kinetic energy, and can be broken down further into such forms of energy as mechanical, electrical, radiant, chemical, and nuclear. Matter can be classified in a number of different ways. One method is in terms of the physical state – solid, liquid, and gas; but probably the most useful method is in terms of composition – elements, compounds, and mixtures. A chemical element is a substance that cannot be broken down to simpler substances by chemical reactions. It is also defined as a substance made of one kind of building block (atom) only. There are only a few more than 100 elements known in the entire universe. A careful study of the elements has indicated that they can be classified into families or groups that further simplify the problem of learning about the universe. This classification is called the periodic table. Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. What does the science of CHEMISTRY study? 2. How are the discoveries in chemistry made? 3. Which are those entities embracing the great variety of materials in the universe? Geology Earth sciences primarily deal with the history, chemical composition, physical characteristics, and dynamic behavior of solid Earth, fluid streams and oceans, and gaseous atmosphere. Because of the three-phase nature of the Earth system, Earth scientists generally have to consider the interaction of all the three phases – solid, liquid and gaseous – in the most problems that they investigate. The geosciences (geology, geochemistry, and geophysics) are concerned with the solid part of the Earth system. Geology is largely a study of the nature of Earth materials and processes, and how these have interacted through time to leave a record of past events in existing Earthly features and materials. Hence, geologists study minerals, rocks, ore deposits, mineral fuels and fossils, and the long-term effects of terrestrial and oceanic waters and of the atmosphere. They also investigate present processes in order to explain past events. Geophysics deals with the physical characteristics and dynamic behavior of the Earth system and thus with a diversity of natural phenomena. For example, earthquakes, volcanism, and mountain building throw light on structure and constitution of the Earth’s interior. Study of the magnetic field involves considering the Earth as a self-sustaining dynamo. Man’s entry into the space age calls for a vast increase in knowledge of the environment through which vehicles and living things will go and return. Many aspects of the Earth’s atmosphere are now being studied intensively for the first time. Many important characteristics of the ocean were discovered, and with instruments and facilities developed during World War II, oceanographic research has been going on at a quickened pace. Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. Why is the nature of the Earth system considered as the three-phase one? 2. How can the geologists explain the past events? Which one of the geosciences deals with studying a diversity of natural phenomena? 4. What are the factors accelerating the geo-research? Mechanism and a Machine Mechanisms are combinations of moving members such as links, gears, cams, belts, chains, and springs held in a rigid frame. In general, a mechanism is defined as an apparatus for mechanically directing and transforming motions and energies of any kind. A mechanism may be designed primarily for one or two purposes: 1) to transmit power greatly in excess of that required to overcome the frictional and dynamic requirements of the mechanism itself, or 2) to produce a desired movement of its parts. An example of the first is the slider crank mechanism in a reciprocating internal combustion engine. An example of the second is the mechanism, consisting of a link, gear sector, and pinion, that converts the movement of a pressure sensitive tube in a pressure gage to rotation of a pointer (стрелка) before the dial of the gage. A machine is an assemblage of one or more mechanisms whose primary purpose is to transform, transmit, and control energy, that is, to do work. Another definition of a machine would be a combination of bodies so arranged as to constrain the forces of nature to produce prescribed effects in response to prescribed inputs. Before constructing a machine to fulfil the need, the engineer must thoroughly understand the application, and mentally modify and old machine or devise a new machine as required. He estimates a certain cost for the machine and a probable time for its construction. He envisions the materials required the equipment necessary for its manufacture and testing, and the final operation in meeting the original need. The engineer converts his thoughts into drawings and materials and follows through to its fabrication. Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. What is a mechanism? 2. What are the purposes for designing a mechanism? 3. What is a machine? 4. What should an engineer take into consideration before constructing a machine? Metallurgy Metallurgy is the technology and science of metallic materials. Metallurgy as a branch of engineering is concerned with the production of metals and alloys, and their performance in service. Metallurgy has played an important role in the history of civilization. Metals were first produced more than 6000 years ago. Because only a few metals, principally gold, silver, copper, and meteoric iron, occur in the uncombined state in nature, and then only in small quantities, primitive metallurgists had to discover ways of extracting metals from their ores. Quite large-scale production of some metal was carried out in the Middle Ages in central and Northern Europe. Basic metallurgical skills were also developed in other parts of the world. The scale of metalworking developed with the growth of industrial organizations. Today’s metallurgical plants supply metals and alloys to the manufacturing and construction industries in many forms, such as beams, plates, sheets, bars, wire, and castings. Rapidly developing technologies such as communications, nuclear power, and space exploration demand new techniques of metal production and processing. The field of metallurgy may be divided into process metallurgy (production metallurgy, extractive metallurgy) and physical metallurgy. According to another system of classification, metallurgy comprises chemical metallurgy, mechanical metallurgy (metal processing and mechanical behavior in service), and physical metallurgy. Metallurgy occupies a position of the juncture of physics, chemistry, mechanical and chemical engineering. It also borders electrical, civil, aeronautical, and nuclear engineering. Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. What is metallurgy? 2. What are the subdivisions of the metallurgy field? 3. What other fields and subjects does metallurgy border? Mining A unique feature of mining is that mineral deposits undergoing extraction are not renewable (невосполнимы) as are other natural resources. This depletability of mineral deposits not only requires that mining companies must periodically find new deposits and constantly improve their technology, but calls for conservational, industrial and political policies to serve the public interests. Depletion means that the supplies of any particular mineral must be extracted from ever-lower-grade sources. Consciousness of depletion causes many countries to be possessive about their mineral resources and jealous of their exploration by foreigners. Some would reduce the scale of domestic production and increase imports in order to extend the lives of domestic deposits. Mining is divided into three basic methods: opencast, underground, and fluid mining. Opencast, or surface, mining is done either from pits or gouged out slopes or by strip mining, which involves extraction from a series of successive parallel trenches. Dredging is a type of strip mining, with digging done from barges. Hydraulic mining uses jets of water to excavate material. Underground mining involves extraction from beneath the surface, from depths as great as 10,000 ft., by any of several methods. Fluid mining is extraction from natural brines, lakes, oceans, or underground waters. Most fluid mining is done by wells. A recent type of well mining is to wash insoluble material loose by underground jets and pump the slurry to the surface. The activities of the mining industry begin with exploration, which has become a complicated, expensive, and highly technical task. After suitable deposits have been found, development of mining begins. Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. What does depletion of mineral deposits mean? 2. What does the mining industry begin with? 3. What are basic methods of mining? 4. What is dredging? Hydraulic mining? Computer Computer is a device that receives, processes, and presents information. The two basic types of computers are analog and digital. The most prevalent computer is the simple mechanical analog computer, in which gears, levers, ratchets, and pawls perform mathematical operations. The two most common examples of the simple mechanical analog are the speedometer, and the watt-hour meter, used to measure accumulated electrical usage. A digital computer uses symbolic representations of its variables. The arithmetic unit is constructed to follow the rules of one number systems. The digital computer uses individual discrete states to represent the digits of the number system chosen. The most prevalent special-purpose mechanical digital computer is the supermarket cash register. By using electronics, large general-purpose digital computers have been constructed. Frequently two or more computers are interconnected to form a computing system. They receive input in the form of preperforated punched cards, electrical signals from digital transolucers, or directly from input keyboards. They process these data in accordance with the rules of procedure and present the output as visual symbols on the printed page, characters on the face of a cathode-ray tube, signals on a communication line, or as input to a digital action device. Typically, a general-purpose electronic digital computer operates on numbers using both decimal and binary number systems, and on symbolic data expressed in an alphabet. Since 1950 the computer industry has grown into a multibillion dollar business employing hundreds of thousands of people to build or maintain computers and to program or operate them to perform commercial data-processing tasks or computations related to science or engineering. Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. What is computer? 2. What is the difference between digital and analog computer? 3. How does an electronic digital computer operate? 4. When did the computer industry grow into a great business? Geology Geology is one of several related subjects commonly grouped as geosciences. Geologists are concerned primarily with rocks that make up the outer part of the Earth. Understanding of these materials involves principles of physics and chemistry; geophysics and geochemistry, now important scientific disciplines become essential allies of geology in exploring the visible and deeper parts of the Earth. Study and mapping of surface forms are shared by geology with geodesy. Known rocks are divided into three groups: igneous rocks, which have solidified from molten matter (magma); sedimentary rocks, made of fragments derived from preexisting rocks, of chemical precipitates, or of organic products; and metamorphic rocks derived from igneous or sedimentary rocks under conditions that brought about changes in mineral composition, texture, and internal structure. Igneous rocks are formed as either extrusive or intrusive masses that is, solidified at the Earth surface or deep underground. Both kinds range widely in composition; silica, the most abundant ingredient, varies from about 40 % to more than 75%. Sedimentary rocks. Bedrock exposed to air and moisture is broken into pieces, large and small, which are moved by running water and other agents to lower ground, and spread in sheets over river flood plains, lake bottoms, and sea floors. Dissolved matter is carried to seas and other water bodies, and some of it is precipitated chemically and by action of organisms. The material deposited in various ways becomes compacted and cemented into firm rock. The principal kinds of sedimentary rock are conglomerate, sandstone, shale, and dolomite. Metamorphic rocks. These rocks have been developed from earlier igneous and sedimentary rocks by heat and pressure, most effectively in mountain zones. The common metamorphic rocks are in the two general classes: foliated (phyllite schist, and gneiss) and non-foliated (marble and quarcite). Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. What are geologists concerned with? 2. What are the main three groups of known rocks? 3. What kinds of sedimentary rocks are mentioned in the text? 4. Write out the examples of foliated and non-foliated rocks? Food engineering Food engineering is the technical discipline involved in food manufacturing and refined foods processing. It encompasses the practical application of food science in the efficient industrial production, packaging, storing, and physical distribution of nutritious and convenient foods that are uniform in quality, palatable and safe. Controlled biological, chemical, and physical processes and the planning, design, construction and operation of food factories and processes are usually involved. Food engineering is the food industry equivalent of chemical engineering. Food science in industry converts agricultural materials into products that are marketable because they meet a consumer need and can be profitably sold at reasonable prices. Food engineering is a vital link between farms and food stores in the lifeline of modern civilization. Without it, food would be available only at farms, in forms produced by nature, and only in season. Because food engineering is applied in food manufacturing and refined food processing, it requires a knowledge of unit operations and processes such as cleaning, separating, mixing, forming, heat transfer, moisture removal, fermenting. These operations involve applied food science. That is why the food engineer must have a working knowledge of food chemistry, bacteriology, and industrial microbiology, as well as of physics, mathematics, and basic engineering disciplines. Some outstanding achievements in food engineering include continuous bread-dough making and forming, manufacture of low-cost, high-quality prepared mixes, development of instant coffee and tea processes, dehydration of potatoes to produce the instant mashed product, production of precooked frozen convenience food, preservation of beer and wine by microspore filtration to remove yeasts and spoilage bacteria, aseptic filling of packages, and automatic control of processes. Promising projects under development are preservation of foods by nuclear or electronic radiation, heat processing by high-frequency electromagnetic waves, and dehydration of fluid in foamed state. Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. What does food engineering include? 2. What may be considered as the equivalent of food engineering? 3. What working knowledge should a food engineer have? 4. What are the promising projects for developing food engineering? Small Hydroelectric The high capital cost and environmental and social impact of large hydroelectric power plants (large dams) have made small hydroelectric power (SHP) an attractive alternative in recent years. Rather than building huge dams with lakes behind them that submerge entire towns or beautiful rivers and canyons, some countries have opted to generate electricity using small hydroelectric power plants. Switzerland has used the power of melting snow running off the Alps for years. According to a UNESCO survey conducted in China, about 800 of its 2,300 counties can be electrified using SHP and the government is giving preferential loans and tax exemptions to SHP developers. Other countries are giving assistance for the development of small hydroelectric power. In Nepal, the government is providing loans and materials to SHP equipment manufacturers, and in Pakistan, the Ministry of Science and Technology has subsidized SHP construction. Similar efforts are occurring in the Andean region of Latin America and in Canada. All of these places are especially suited for small hydroelectric power generation because they have high mountain ranges. As the engineering and equipment required for SHP become more widespread, other countries with mountains and rivers should be able to take advantage of this clean source of electricity. Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. Why did SHP become an attractive alternative to large hydroelectric power plants? 2. How do the governments of different countries contribute to the development of SHP? 3. Give an example (taken from the text or yours) of widespreading SHP? 4. Where the construction of SHP is more advantageous? Wind energy The use of wind energy is growing faster than any other type of renewable energy because of improvements in wind turbine technology over the past 20 years. The best locations for wind as an energy source are coasts, mountains, and plains. Like solar rays, wind is also a form of intermittent renewable energy, available only about 30 percent of the time. Often, when the sun is not shining, the wind is blowing; so many users rely on wind turbines to complement solar panels. Most of the world’s wind generation capacity is located in the United States, Denmark (the pioneer in wind generation), the Netherlands (famous for its use of windmills), Germany, and India. While wind generation of electricity is clean, some disadvantages include the noise of the blades of windmills and the appearance. A large wind farm on a hillside is clearly visible, in the same way that large arrays of solar panels are. People who rely on wind-generated electricity, however, may not mind the view of clean energy being created. Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. Why is the use of wind energy growing faster than other types of renewable energy? 2. What are the best locations for its using? 3. Where are most wind generation capacities located (in the world)? 4. What are the disadvantages of using the wind energy? Bicycle It is an indisputable fact that bicycles are an inexpensive and efficient means of personal transportation, especially for short trips and in densely populated areas. One example of a bicycling country is China. Decades ago, with a policy of mass-producing inexpensive bicycles and building infrastructure for non-motorized traffic, Chinese authorities deliberately set out to provide affordable transportation to citizens. Today China has a higher number of bicycles per capita and a higher percentage of daily trips made by bicycle than any other country. The bicycle is a marvel of fuel efficiency. In terms of energy expended and distance covered, traveling by bicycle is far more economical than traveling by horse, motorcycle, or car, and even more economical than walking or running. Of course, the fuel of bicycle riders is the food they eat. An average cyclist can cover approximately five kilometers on 100 calories, the number of calories in a banana. One hundred calories’ worth of gasoline could take a lightweight car only 100 meters. In addition, to being incredibly fuel-efficient, bicycles are environmentally friendly in other ways. For example, they generate no air or noise pollution and do not require huge paved roads or parking lots. Cycling is not only good for the environment; it is good for the rider. Riding a bike can provide an excellent physical workout. It exercises the major muscle groups (back and legs), increases cardiovascular fitness (heart and lungs), and improves blood circulation. It can provide these health benefits without intense straining or profuse sweating, and without the pounding of joints and risk of injury found in sports such as tennis, basketball, soccer, and running. The development of comfortable and lightweight bicycle helmets over the past 20 years has made the sport even safer. Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. What are the advantages of a bicycle as a mean of transportation? 2. What may be considered as a fuel for bicycle? 3. Why cycling is good for the environment and rider? 4. What makes the cycling safer? Electro-ionizing laser The 20th century has been called the age of the atom, the age of polymers, or the space age. It would be equally correct to call it the age of the laser. It is impossible to list all the jobs a laser can do. It has become a part of our life being used in various industries, medicine, biology, etc. it should be mentioned that all the methods we know of processing materials with lasers were suggested not long ago. Physicists knew of the tremendous capabilities of the laser beam, but they could not be realized until lasers of adequate capacity were developed. To make a laser really useful the radiation intensity had to be increased (since capacity determines productivity) and high beam efficiency created. Creating highly effective laser is still one of the main problems of quantum electronics. In a gas laser all one has to do in order to increase the capacity is to increase the volume and the pressure of the gas. This sounds simple, but the doing of it is not. The best results were achieved with electro-ionizing laser (EIL) operating on carbon dioxide. They have found a wide field of application. EIL’s of some 10-kilowatt capacity can weld and cut metal; pulse EIL’s with radiation energy of 10 kilojoules and a pulse duration of 1/1,000,000,000th of second can heat plasma to nearly thermonuclear temperatures. Several other methods for building powerful gas lasers have been suggested and used. Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. How was the 20th century called and why? 2. What are the capabilities of the laser beam? 3. Where were the best results in using lasers achieved? 4. What types of lasers do you know? New microcomputer An entirely new microcomputer has been developed in our country. The microcomputer is equipped with an arithmetical logical device that carries pre-set programs. Because of this the microcomputer can perform various logical functions. In other words, it possesses a solving field for various commands. It is comparatively easy to change commands or add new ones. The arithmetical logical device is known to be adjusted by computers of a higher level. The memory device based on semiconductors keeps information for several days, even with the power supply unplugged. In this case the microcomputer automatically switches over to the micro accumulator. The new computer is very small in size and weight (25 kg), is resistant to temperature fluctuations, does not require special ventilation, is reliable and easy to operate. It can be used in computer control complexes as an information-processing unit and also as a built-in computer in various analysing and display devices. It receives data, calculates the optimum conditions and supplies signals for the control of technological processes. For example, in pressure-die casting the microcomputer receives information about the temperature in the furnace, the speed of the liquid metal movements, location of the various devices, etc. The computer processes the data and controls the casting, i.e. keeps the temperature and the pressure within required limits, and commands the beginning of the casting operation. The programme is written by technicians, and the operator inserts the required data. The field of application of the new computer appears to be vast. It can analyse various substances in oil, gas, chemical and food industries, as well as soil and plants. It can also be used for processing information about conditions in the environment, for control of conveyors and other equipment. Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. Why can the microcomputer perform various functions? 2. How does this computer operate? 3. Who writes the programs for microcomputer? Where is it applied? Airbus's advanced wing enters validation phase. First production applications could be realized within five years, possibly on A380 Airbus has begun the validation phase of its AWIATOR aerodynamic technology demonstrator programme and hopes to realize production applications in the second half of the decade. AWIATOR – aircraft wing with advanced technology operation – is one of several researches and development programmes that Airbus is undertaking which are partly funded by the European Commission as part of the Fifth Framework programme for R&D. Focused on reducing aircraft wake, drag, noise and fuel consumption, it brings together 23 European manufacturers, universities and research institutes, as well as Israel Aircraft Industries (Flight International, 9–15 July 2002). Airbus executive vice-president engineering Alain Garcia says that the manufacturer is providing about 64 % of the R&D programme’s total budget of € 80 million ($ 87 million). Fifty percent of Airbus’s investment will be reimbursed by the EC. Garcia says that following input from divisions in France, Germany and the UK, the three-year validation process to examine integrative aspects of the proposed concepts is under way (осуществляется). “Tests will involve mapping aircraft performance at low and high speeds,” he says, using Airbus’s development A340-300 aircraft. Garcia says that ideas include “large winglets; nose-mounted turbulence sensors which are being looked at for the A380; wake vortex devices; mini trailing-edge devices to further improve the efficiency of the flaps; and sub-boundary layer vortex generators and optimized inner airbrakes to improve efficiency without diluting the air flow to the horizontal stabilizer”. The target is to reduce drag by 5–7% while cutting fuel consumption by 2%. Garcia says that the A380 could be the first to benefit from AWIATOR, as initial applications on the product line are expected within three to five years. Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. What is AWIATOR? 2. Who provided the R&D programme’s budget for AWIATOR? 3. How does Garcia describe the new Airbus’s model? 4. When are the first applications on the product line expected? Avionica: a Reliable Partner in Russian-Indian Technical Cooperation For over 58 years now, the Avionica Moscow Research and Production Complex JSC has been involved in the development and production of equipment for fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft of all classes and purposes. Currently, the enterprise specializes in the following profiles: fly-by-wire systems; automatic flight, engine and thrust-vectoring control systems; integrated flight control and navigation systems; cockpit pressure regulation systems; mass and CG position measuring systems; flight simulators and training aids; unified elements of automatic instrument systems for various applications. Avionica products have been known to Indian aviation specialists since the 1950s. The Mikoyan MIG-21/-23/-27/-29 fighters, Ilyushin IL – 76 and Antonov AN-12/-24/-26/-28/-30/-32/-38/-72/-74 transports, and Mil MI -4/-6/-8 helicopters equipped with various versions of Avionica flight control and avionics systems have been widely used in India. Avionica is an integrated complex capable of carrying out the entire cycle of operations involving the development, manufacture, and certification of its products. The high quality of Avionica’s products is ensured by extensive use of R&D advances, know-how, unique application software, CAD technologies and advanced manufacturing and testing methods. The Avionica Research and Production Complex has developed the SDU-10MK fly-by-wire system and the SAU-10M-03 automatic flight control system intended to improve aircraft stability and maneuverability, provide for automatic flight, engine thrust and thrust-vectoring control and avoid critical flight conditions. A principally new stage in technical cooperation between Avionica and Indian aviation companies began five years ago. This period can be called a prelude to long-term mutually beneficial business as this cooperation helps each side fully implement its own capabilities and intellectual potential, as well as pursue commercial interests. Specifically, Avionica established close business contacts with the Hindustan Aeronautics Limited Corp. The two partners are currently negotiating a number of long-term contracts and agreements involving technical and organizational issues related to the license production of Avionica equipment for the SU-30МКI fighter and the supplies of the APU-70 longitudinal stability automatic control units for the MIG-21-93 aircraft. Talks are also underway on cooperation in a number of other technical fields, specifically, equipping the MIG-29K and MIG-29KUB fighters and the MIG-AT combat trainer with digital flight control systems. Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. What is Avionica? 2. What profiles does Avionica specialize? 3. When did Avionica begin to collaborate with Indian companies? 4. What are most famous Avionica’s products (models)? Transportation Because of its many mountains, rivers, and islands and its long and harsh winter, Alaska has relatively few roads. In some areas, such as the southeastern part of the state, road construction is impossible due to the large number of glaciers. In other places year-round snow cover requires residents to rely more on air travel than automobiles to reach distant areas of the state. In fact, Alaska has more pilots, airplanes, and airports per capita than the rest of the United States. Those “airports” include lakes where seaplanes land and take off. There are even air taxis that take residents and tourists to isolated wilderness areas and pick them up later. The state capital and third largest city, Juneau, is accessible only by water or air. Because of its northern location, Alaska has become an international hub for air cargo. Anchorage International Airport handles more cargo planes – most of them fully loaded 747s – than any other airport in the country. Ferries are also an indispensable means of transportation within the state. The Alaska Marine Highway was established in 1963 to carry passengers and vehicles on water routes. Two ferry systems operate year-round on the southern coast of Alaska, linking cities and towns on the mainland as well as numerous islands. Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. What region is described in the text? 2. Why is the road construction impossible in some of its areas? 3. What do Alaska’s “airports” include? 4. How do the ferry systems operate in Alaska? Solar energy Ultimately, almost all energy comes from the sun. The energy stored in coal, oil, and natural gas is the result of photosynthesis carried out by plants that lived hundreds of millions years ago. Wind energy is actually the movement of the atmosphere driven by the heat from the sun. Currently solar energy is used two ways: for heat (thermal) and to generate electricity (photovoltaic). Solar rays can be directly thermal in two ways: actively as can be seen in the thousands of rooftop water heaters throughout Italy and Greece, and passively with proper design of homes and buildings. Improvements in photovoltaic (or solar electric) panels continue to make this technology more applicable, especially for developing countries without widely established power grids that transport electricity generated at large public utilities. Increased efficiency of converting sunlight to electricity, using thin film silicon panels or copper indium thin film, has been an ongoing goal of several manufacturers of solar energy technology. As technology has improved, the cost of using solar energy has dropped. In 1996, the average price of solar panels was one-tenth what it was in 1975. However, one concern about widespread use of solar panels to generate the large amounts of electricity needed for industries and cities is the environmental impact – they take up a lot of space and are highly visible. However, this is an acceptable trade-off because solar energy is totally clean and panels have a long lifespan. Panels are also easy to maintain for there are no moving parts, only moving electrons! A more serious concern for widespread use is that solar energy is an intermittent energy source, as are wind and tides. Therefore, storage of excess energy or backup sources of energy are needed for times when there is not adequate sunshine for the panels to function efficiently. Improved battery technology has made use of photovoltaic panels easier for users in remote areas who live “of the grid” of the public utility company and need to store excess power. In some areas, users of solar panels who are connected to the grid may sell back any surplus power to the public utility company. Development of thin film technology has made solar power viable for use in some forms of transportation. For all its advantages, however solar power remains the least used of the main alternative energy sources. Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. Why is the solar energy considered the source of any other energy? 2. What are the two ways (when) the solar energy is used? 3. How did the solar energy consumption drop? 4. Where is the solar power used? Modern Biomass Biomass simply means fuel produced from organic sources. Traditional biomass such as wood, charcoal, and other plant matter has been the fuel of choice for thousands of years, and it remains so in many parts of the world. Modern biomass, however, includes other types of fuel derived from plants, such as the residues of existing agricultural, livestock, and lumber industries, from forests planted and harvested renewably, and from farms dedicated to this purpose. Biomass needs to be produced on a sustainable basis, whether on deforested lands or on excess agricultural land, and never from virgin forests. Some of the most suitable locations are areas where widespread deforestation has already occurred, but there are still other possible sources of biomass. For example, residues from the processing of pulpwood, cereals, and logging operations can be processed into gas or burned in power plants to generate electricity. Methane from urban landfills and from animal and human wastes is another potential type of fuel derived from biomass, although the derivation of fuels from landfills requires the labor-intensive separation of various materials. As an alternative to non-renewable energy sources, modern biomass may have the greatest potential for growth, especially in transportation and powering vehicles. For example, Brazil has been a leading nation in the use of ethanol (alcohol-based fuel) for automobiles. It is derived from sugar cane and grains grown specifically to produce ethanol. Biomass also looks promising as a fuel source for electricity if it is burned in small, local power stations. Questions to be answered (in writing): 1. What is biomass? 2. What are the most suitable locations for producing biomass? 3. How can biomass be used as an alternative to energy and fuel sources? 4. What is it derived from? |