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The complex sentence with an adverbial clause§ 163. Adverbial clauses are usually classified according to their meaning, that is, according to the relation they bear to the main clause. They differ from nominal and attributive clauses in that they are introduced by conjunctions with a more distinct meaning. Some types of adverbial clauses may be introduced by at least a dozen different conjunctions (as for instance adverbial clauses of time). On the other hand, many of the conjunctions are used to introduce more than one kind of clause (as, since, that, when, now that). In some cases the meanings and functions of the conjunction are so numerous that it is really difficult to say what the basic meaning of the conjunction is, as its function depends on the meaning of the clauses and their relationship. Conditional clauses may be joined asyndetically, though they have link-inversion in this case. Here the meaning and function of the clause can be inferred only from the meaning of the subordinate and the main clause. An adverbial clause may qualify the whole main clause, the verbal predicate or any verbal part, and also parts expressed by an adjective or adverb. Its position therefore varies: it may be initial, medial, or final -depending on the position of the part of the sentence it refers to and on the general structure of the main clause.     Women are very shy when they are expressing their emotions. O ne day, because the days were so short, he decided to give up algebra and geometry.    Types of adverbial clauses § 164. According to their semantics we distinguish adverbial clauses of place, time, manner, comparison, condition, concession, purpose, cause, result. The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of place§ 165. An adverbial clause of place defines the place or the direction of the action expressed in the principal clause. It may be introduced by one of the following conjunctions: where, whence, wherever, everywhere (that) and conjunctive adverbs with prepositions. A clause introduced by wherever can express direction as well as position. He was standing where he always had stood, on the rug before the living-room fire. From where he stood he could see nothing. Wherever they came people greeted them enthusiastically. Why can’t we go where it’s warm? He took a chair whence he could see the street.
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of time§ 166. An adverbial clause of time characterizes the action expressed in the main clause from the temporal point of view. The action may be expressed by a finite or non-finite form of the verb. An adverbial clause of time may be introduced by conjunctions: as, as soon as, as long as, when, whenever, while, now that, till, until, after, before, since; recently formed conjunctions and phrasal conjunctions: the time (that), the day (that), the moment, the instant, next time, every (each) time, directly, immediately, instantly, once. Every conjunction in the above list imparts a particular shade of meaning to the temporal relation - priority, simultaneity, succession of actions, the beginning or the end of the action, repetition, coincidence of two actions, gradual development of a process, etc. These temporal relations can be illustrated by the following examples: When a Forsyte was engaged, married, or born, the Forsytes were present. Whenever there was a pause, he gently asked again. (The conjunctions when and whenever introduce clauses expressing repetition.) As they stood up Ivory clapped him on the shoulder. (The subordinate clause denotes the moment when the action of the principal clause takes place.) While he walked around Christine sat and knitted at a distance. (The predicate in the subordinate clause expresses a durative action, which coincides in time with the action expressed by the predicate in the main clause.) And now that Cecily had married, she might be having children too. Our hostess, once everyone had arrived, was full of good humour. (In both these cases the predicate in the subordinate clause expresses a completed prior action which fixes the moment from which the action or state expressed in the main clause becomes possible; therefore the subordinate clause of time has a shade of causal meaning.) As they approached the house, they became quieter and quieter. (Both the actions are gradually developing.) They were calling each other ‘George’ and 'Elizabeth' before they reached Camden Town. (The subordinate clause points to the moment before which the action of the main clause was in progress. The action of the predicate in the subordinate clause is posterior.) The heavy guns began again soon after it was light. (The action of the subordinate clause, which is prior, fixes the beginning of the action in the main clause.) The conjunctions till and until introduce clauses which fix the end of the action in the main clause if the latter contains no negation, as in: She resolved to wait till Clym came to look for her. If the time reference in the subordinate clause with till or until is to a commencement point, the main clause is always negative. For example: He did not say a word till he was asked. They did not marry until she was forty. The boy did not start to read until he went to school. Corresponding sentences with affirmative main clauses are impossible unless, the conjunction before is used. *He said a word till he was asked ——> He said some words before he was asked. *They married until she was forty ——> They married before she was forty. The conjunction since may introduce a clause which indicates the beginning of a period of time continuing until now or until some time in the past. In the first case the present perfect is used in the principal clause, in the second the past perfect. In a temporal clause the past indefinite tense is used in both cases. For example: I have only seen him once since I left school. She had been such of a companion to him since she was three years old. If the actions expressed in both clauses are durative and still continuing, the present perfect tense is used in both the clauses, as in: Since we have been friends we have never quarrelled. Conjunctions of recent formation have mainly been formed from nouns denoting time, although some are formed from adverbs denoting time. They are the time, the moment, the instant, immediately, directly and others. Most of them are used to introduce subordinate clauses denoting the exact moment of the action in the main clause or the quick succession of the actions in both clauses. We’ll be married the very moment we find a house. Immediately he had lain down and closed his eyes, his consciousness went racing on without him. Directly he saw me, he slipped back into the room. Some of the temporal conjunctions are not confined to clauses of time. Thus as may be used to join clauses of cause, manner, concession, comparison and also to introduce parenthetic clauses. The conjunction since may introduce clauses of reason. The conjunctions when and while may express adversative relations, in which case they can hardly be considered subordinating conjunctions. When can introduce a clause containing a new piece of information, not prepared for by the preceding narrative, and thus indicates a quick succession of actions. The conjunction whenever generally expresses temporal relations, but the idea of time often mingles with that of concession. At the sound of that knock she jumped up, when the brass candlestick clattered to the floor. (The conjunction when expresses the quick succession of actions.) She left the room in the pursuit of her duties, when no duty could have taken her away if she had wished to stay. His life has been ruined for him, when he is but one-and-twenty.(In the last two sentences the conjunction when expresses a concessive relation.) The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of manner§ 167. Adverbial clauses of manner characterize actions, states, qualities, circumstances. Therefore they may have different reference. The most common conjunctions to introduce them are as and the way. Adverbial clauses of manner may have different reference: I. Adverbial clauses of manner may modify the predicate of the main clause by attributing some quality to it. I’m sorry I talked the way I did at lunch. She cooks the turkey exactly as my mother did. He could do it as no one else could have done. II. They may refer to attributes or predicatives characterizing a state or quality of a person or non-person. Astonished, as one could be in such circumstances, he didn’t give a sign of it. He was puzzled by the situation, as one could easily be in his place. III. They may refer to an adverbial modifier, giving additional information or explanation concerning it. He said it with contempt, as a grown-up serious man should treat such views. In the second and the third case the connection between the clauses is rather loose, and the subordinate clause is generally set off by commas. The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of comparison§ 168. Adverbial clauses of comparison characterize the action expressed by the predicate in the main clause by comparing it with some real or hypothetical circumstance or action. Clauses of comparison may be introduced by conjunctions as, like, as if, as though, than; correlative conjunctions as... as, so... as, as... as if. Swithin’s pale eyes bulged as though he might suddenly have been afflicted with insight. He spoke as timidly as if he were afraid of me. An adverbial clause of comparison may correlate with adverbs in the comparative degree in the principal clause. In this case the clause refers to the predicate with its adverbial modifier. Thus in the sentence Mr. Direct’s broken wrist healed sooner than he desired the subordinate clause characterizes the predicate group healed sooner through comparison. The conjunction than is correlated with the adverb in the comparative degree sooner. The indicative form can also be used. They don’t have long intervals like they do at other theatres. Note 1: The difference between the use of as and like is important. As implies the idea of identification, as in: Let me speak to you as your father ought to (= I am your father and I am speaking to you in that character), whereas like implies the idea of mere comparison, as in: Let me speak to you like a father might (= I am not your father, but I am speaking in the way your father might). Note 2: The conjunctions as if and as though may also introduce appositive and predicative clauses, as the comparative meaning may combine with different syntactic connections. She had a look as if she had something in her mouth.(appositive clause) She looked as if she had something in her mouth. (predicative clause) She looked at me as if nothing was wrong. (adverbial clause) Clauses of comparison sometimes have inverted word order. He was as obstinate as were most of his relatives. Special mention should be made of cases when two subordinating devices are used to introduce a clause, usually a conjunction and a conjunctive word: than whose, than which, than where, or two conjunctions: than if. They bear double relation to the main clause, one of which is that of comparison. He is never more present in my work than when no image of him is there. (comparative and temporal relation) The butler took his tip far more casually, far more naturally than if Dicky had offered to shake hands with him. - чем если бы Дикки протянул ему руку (comparative and conditional relation) The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of condition§ 169. Adverbial clauses of this type contain some condition (either real or unreal) which makes the action in the main clause possible. Adverbial clauses of condition may be introduced by conjunctions: if, unless, once, in case. There are also several conjunctions derived from verbal forms sometimes followed by the optional that: provided (that), providing (that), suppose (that), supposing (that), considering (that), given (that), granted (that), granting (that), admitting (that), presuming (that), seeing (that). Conditional clauses introduced by if and other conjunctions (with the exception of unless) imply uncertainty. Therefore they often contain non-assertive forms of pronouns and pronominal adverbs, such as any, anybody, anything, anywhere. If anything troubles you, you’d better tell me. If anyone asks for me, tell him to wait. Clauses beginning with unless express the only possible condition which will make the action in the main clause possible. Therefore they usually contain assertive forms like something, somebody. Unless somebody interferes, there may be a disaster. For the same reason unless-clauses hardly ever express unreal conditions. The exclusive meaning of unless accounts for the fact that, even if the condition is real, the unless-clause is not always equivalent to an if-not-clause. Thus the sentence: I won’t come unless you invite me (я приду, только если вы пригласите меня) and the sentence I won’t come if you don’t invite me (= я не приду, если вы меня не приглашаете) are quite different in their meaning. The conjunction provided opens a clause containing some desirable condition for the fullfilment of the action expressed by the predicate in the main clause. And you can do what you please, provided you do it neatly and don’t make a row over it. The conjunctions suppose and supposing always imply that the condition is merely hypothetical. I mean this: Suppose some other European pauper prince was anxious to marry Princess Anna and her fortune, wouldn’t that Prince have an interest in stopping this loan of yours to Prince Eugen? Conditional clauses may be joined to the main clause asyndetically by means of link-inversion. Inversion is possible only if the predicate in the subordinate clause is in the subjunctive mood, that is expressed by past subjunctive (were), or by non-factual Past Perfect. But had chance taken you out into the surrounding country and had it taken you in the right direction, you would have found him toiling along by the hedges... § 170. Depending on the relation between the subordinate and the main clauses and on the use of tense and mood forms, complex sentences with conditional clauses may be subdivided into three types: I. Complex sentences with clauses of real condition are those when the actions or events in both the clauses refer to the past or present and these actions or events are regarded as real facts. If the actions or events in these clauses refer to the future, the actions or events are regarded as possible real facts. If I have offended you, I am very sorry. Why did he send us matches if he knew there was no gas? If Jules comes back, simply defy him to enter - that is all. I won’t phone you, unless something unforeseen happens. The conditional clause may be a statement for mere argument, no condition is meant. If she got no money from her brother-in-law, she got what was as good as money - credit. If Adrian had a passion, indeed, except for Diana Ferse, it was a burning desire to fix that breeding spot, As can be seen from the above examples, the predicates in conditional clauses may be in the past or present indefinite, present perfect, present or past continuous. Note: In cases like the following Let her come to me as she will, when she will, not at all if she will not; But I must run out for half a minute, if you’ll let me the verb will is not auxiliary but modal, as it expresses wish, insistence, or resistance (in negative form). II. Complex sentences with clauses of open condition. These clauses denote hypothetical situations or circumstances which may be (or may not be) realised in the present or future. Accordingly the subjunctive-mood forms are used both in the subordinate and the principal clause to denote actions or states.
In case the state of the patient became worse he would be taken to a hospital. If I were you, I would change into another dress. You wouldn’t be talking that way unless you were hurt.
You might ask her this question if you were less scrupulous. This might seem to be unreal unless I saw it with my own eyes.
Should he ask for references, tell him to apply to me. Note: The form would + infinitive in the subordinate clause may be not a mood form, but a compound predicate, expressing a polite request. I should be much obliged if you would agree to take part in the concert (если бы вы согласились участвовать в концерте). III. Complex sentences with clauses of rejected condition imply non-fulfilment of the condition, as the actions or events described in the conditional clause refer to the past and the time of their realization is over. The condition is generally not even supposed to have been fulfilled, but is stated merely for the sake of argument. The following mood forms are used;
If I hadn’t woken you, you’d (would) have lain there for the whole fortnight. She would have been playing her part well unless she had been stiff with fright. I might have persuaded her to change her mind if she had not been so obstinate. If the book had been published they could have bought a copy in the shops. Could he not have missed the train if he had been detained by the director?* * The forms with may (might) and could are compound verbal modal predicates in the subjunctive mood. The non-factual past perfect form may open an asyndetically joined conditional clause (with partial inversion). Had the colour of the dress been to my taste, I should have bought it. Had the world been watching, it would have been startled. § 171. A complex sentence with a conditional clause may be built on clauses of both type II and III, thus forming a mixed type of conditional relationship. For instance: If we hadn’t been such fools, we would all still be together. (the subordinate clause with reference to the past - type III, the principal clause with reference to the present - type II). If you were more attentive, you would’t have made so many mistakes (the subordinate clause with reference to the present, as it implies somebody's ability to concentrate in general - type II, the main clause with reference to the past - type III). Note: Some of the conditional constructions may be used to join clauses expressing other meanings or admitting a two-fold interpretation. Thus if may introduce concessive clauses (see § 172), clauses in which the meaning of condition is combined with temporal meaning. The conjunction in case may introduce clauses of negative purpose, as in: I went and ate sandwiches in the woods, in case one of the servants should see me on the lawn from the window... (чтобы кто-нибудь из слуг не увидел...) The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of concession§ 172. In complex sentences with concessive clauses there is a contrast between the content of the main clause and that of the subordinate one: the action or fact described in the main clause is carried out or takes place despite the action or state expressed in the subordinate clause. This type of clause is introduced by conjunctions: although, though, if; correlative conjunctions: though...yet, whether...or; conjunctive pronouns or adverbs: whoever, whatever, whichever, whenever, wherever (which may stand for almost any part of the sentence), as, or composite соnjunсtiоns: no matter how, no matter what, for all that, despite that, in spite of the fact, despite the fact, even if, even though, even when. The abundance of means for expressing concessive relations is determined not only by the necessity to differentiate various shades of meaning, but also by the fact that different parts may form the focus of the concessive meaning:
Compound conjunctive pronouns and adverbs (whoever, whenever, etc.) impart universal or indefinite meaning to the clause they introduce. Contrast the following sentences: a) Whenever you come send me a note (any time when...). b) When you come send me a note (the definite time when...). There is some similarity between clauses of condition and concession. The difference lies in the fact that whereas conditional clauses state the dependence of one action or circumstance on another, concessive clauses imply a contrast or lack of dependence between them. Thus the following sentences with concessive clauses Although the weather was bad, he went for a walk. Although the weather was fine, he did not go for a walk (the second statement is surprising in the light of the first), may be rephrased using coordinate clauses joined by the contrastive but. The weather was bad, but he went for a walk. The weather was fine, but he did not go for a walk. In complex sentences with a conditional clause the dependence has no contrast. If the weather was fine he went for a walk. (The second statement results from the first.) Note 1: However, contrastive meaning is not characteristic of all types of concessive clauses. There are three types of concessive clauses, which differ in the relation they bear to the principal clause and in the way they are connected. I. Clauses of admitted concession (придаточные уступительные со значением допущения). Though there might be many obstacles to overcome, he faithfully believed in future. Though all efforts fail, we shall never surrender. Though war and danger were in store, war and danger might not befall for months to come. Concessive clauses introduced by compound pronouns and adverbs in -ever are never adversative to the main clause in their content, as they suggest a choice from among a number of possibilities. Whoever he may be, he seems to be an honest man at least. Wherever you live, you can keep a cat. Whatever your problems are, they can’t be worse than mine. Whatever guests you invite, they are welcome. Clauses of admitted concession may have inverted word order; inversion is possible both with the conjunctions though and as, which in this case occur in non-initial position (after the predicative), and with conjunctive words. Josephine could always eat, however excited she was (though she was excited). Dark as it was getting, I could still see these changes (though it was getting dark). Miraculous though it seemed to be, there was no miracle in their survival (though it seemed to be miraculous). The connective however, besides being a linking element, functions also as an adverbial modifier of degree referring to the predicative (however excited she was). Note 2: Sometimes clauses concessive in form have a non-concessive meaning of cause or attendant circumstance. The sergeant, fool as he was, couldn't see the point (because he was a fool, being a fool). II. Clauses of open concession (придаточные уступительные со значением гипотетического допущения). Clauses of this type express an unreal condition, despite which the action in the principal clause is carried out. The predicate in the subordinate clause may be in the indicative or in the subjunctive mood (in the latter case the quasi-subjunctive forms with may and might are generally used). Whatever may be the shortcomings and defects of the present treatment, it is vain to attempt to extenuate or excuse them in a short preface. However much advice you give him, he does exactly what he wants. III. Clauses of disjunctive or alternative concession (придаточные уступительные со значением альтернативы). These clauses admit two possible alternatives, both of which may be unreal, or may refer to the future. As can be seen from the examples given below, the contrast between the principal and the subordinate clause or clauses is weaker, as there are two alternatives, neither of which can be considered as an acceptable condition. “Coward!” he repeated. “Coward, am I? Then I'll be a coward, and you shall kiss me whether you will or not!” The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of purpose§ 173. Clauses of purpose generally express the purpose of the action, which is stated in the main clause. The verb-predicate in the subordinate clause is in the subjunctive mood as it expresses a planned but not a real action. Adverbial clauses of purpose are introduced by conjunctions that, so that, lest, so as, so, in order that, for fear that. I trode on an edging of turf that the crackle of the pebbly gravel might not betray me. I tell you all this so that you may understand me perfectly. The conjunctions lest and for fear (that) introduce clauses stating what is to be prevented, as botli the conjunctions have a negative meaning. Lest is now extremely formal and after this conjunction the analytical subjunctive with should auxiliary is generally used. He was like a man who is afraid to look behind him lest he should see something there which ought not to be there. “It’s a bit lighter in the park,” he said, “but take it (an electric torch) for fear you get off the path.” In some cases the meaning of purpose in clauses introduced by lest and for fear that is weakened so that the clause expresses rather general motivation than purpose, or else an outcome of the action in the main clause, as in: Lest the wall should collapse, they evacuated the building. (They did not evacuate the building with the purpose of causing the wall to collapse.) Better chain up the dog for fear he bites. Note: The conjunctions that, so that, lest, so are not confined only to clauses of purpose: that may introduce subject clauses, predicative clauses, and object clauses; so that may introduce clauses of result, lest - clauses of cause, subject clauses, predicative clauses and object clauses; so - clauses of result and of cause. The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of cause§ 174. Adverbial clauses of cause (or causative clauses) express the reason, cause, or motivation of the action expressed in the main clause or of its content as a whole. Causative clauses may be introduced by the conjunctions as, because, since, so, that, lest, seeing (that), considering; or by the composite conjunctions for the reason that, in view of the fact that, in so far as (insofar as), by reason of. Of these the conjunction as is preferable when the sentence opens with a clause of cause. As he was tired he preferred to stay at home. Since there is no help, let us try and bear it as best we can. They went down arm-in-arm - James with Imogen, because his pretty grandchild cheered him. In so far as it is difficult to assign an external cause to certain happenings, they are written off as uncaused or spontaneous. As can be seen from the above examples, the causative clause may stand in preposition to the main clause, or follow it. It may also be embedded within the main clause, as in: She loved to give, since she had plenty, and sent presents here and there to Lilian, the children, and others. Each of the conjunctions and conjunctive phrases expresses a certain shade of causative meaning, and so they are not always interchangeable. Because usually introduces clauses with the meaning of real cause. This can be illustrated by the ability of because-causes (but not others) to be included in questions. Thus it is correct to say: Did you ask him because he was famous or for another reason? But it is wrong to say: Did you ask him since he was famous...? Unlike because, the conjunctions since and as introduce clauses with an explanatory meaning, or else that of motivation. Since you are here, we may begin our talk. The other reason why causal conjunctions, though synonymous, are not always interchangeable with because, is that some of them are polyfunctional: as and since may be conjunctions of time, as well as of cause. For example: His mood changed as they marched down to the clocks, (temporal relation) Note 1: Causative relation may be found in compound sentences with the coordinating conjunction for. Its coordinate character is unmistakably shown by the fact that the clause with for cannot stand before the other half of the sentence. Note 2: Some causative conjunctions (as, because) may connect their clause to the main clause rather loosely, in which case the relation between the clauses is similar to coordination (such clauses may even be independent sentences). The causative clause generally expresses some grounds on which we can judge of the truthfulness of some idea expressed in the main clause, as in: He was, I presume, a relative of the coachman’s, as he lay atop of the luggage, with his face towards the rain. Here the subordinate clause as he lay atop of the luggage, with his face towards the rain, does not express the cause, but gives some grounds which serve to prove the truthfulness of the supposition expressed in the main clause. I must have been very weak at the time; because I know, after the first half hour or so, I seemed to take no interest whatever in my food. In this sentence the first clause is separated by a semicolon, which is not typical of subordination and is a mark of loose connection. In colloquial English a clause of cause may be joined rather loosely to a sentence which cannot be its main clause: Are you going to the post-office? - Because I have some letters to post. (I ask you this because I have some letters to post.) The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of result (consequence)§ 175. An adverbial clause of result denotes some consequence or result of the action expressed in the main clause. It may be introduced by the conjunction so that, or simply that. Light fell on her there, so that Soames could see her face, eyes, hair, strangely as he remembered them, strangely beautiful. Clauses with the correlatives so and such (so... that, such... that) may express manner with a shade of resultative meaning and are treated as such. However one should bear in mind that the line of demarcation between cases of jo... that and so that is rather difficult to draw when the two words follow one another. The complex sentence with mutually subordinated clauses§ 176. In complex sentences of this type it is impossible to differentiate which of the clauses is the main one and which is subordinate. We shall consider two patterns of such sentences. § 177. Clauses of proportionate agreement (or comparison). They express a proportional relationship - proportionality or equivalence; the more intensive is the action or quality described in one clause, the more intensive becomes the other, described in the following clause. Although sentences containing such clauses are undoubtedly complex, it is nevertheless impossible to state which of the clauses is the main one and which is subordinate, since they are of the same pattern -two twin clauses, looking like one another. Clauses of proportionate agreement are joined by the conjunction as (correlated with the adverb of degree so in the other clause); or by means of the correlative adverbs so... so in both clauses. Proportionate agreement between the clauses may also be expressed by the correlative particles the... the, followed by the comparative degree of adverbs (or adjectives). As time went on, so their hopes began to wane. The more he reflected on the idea, the more he liked it. The further I penetrated into London, the profounder grew the stillness. Proportionate agreement occurs in such aphoristic sentences as the more the better, the sooner the better, which may refer to various situations. § 178. The second pattern of mutually subordinated clauses expresses temporal relations - a quick succession of actions or events, often overlapping with one another for a short period of time. These clauses form an indivisible whole owing to correlative elements and sometimes partial inversion in the first clause. The order in which the elements follow one another is fixed. As partial inversion is possible when the predicate consists of the operator and the notional part, only analytical forms or compound predicates are used. There are several variants of the pattern: 1. No sooner... than. No sooner had Tom seen us than he jumped into a bus. No sooner could the chairman finish his speech than a great noise started. 2. Scarcely... when, scarcely... before. Scarcely had he seen us when he jumped into a bus. The door had scarcely closed behind her before it opened again. 3. Hardly... when. Hardly could he finish his last sentence when a great noise started. I had hardly finished when Holmes returned with the news that the boy was putting in the horse. 4. Negation... when. He had not closed the door when he heard somebody knock at it. 5. Just... when. He had just cut a mighty slice of bread when he heard somebody’s footsteps. The role of the past perfect tense in the first clause is also of importance as it does not manifest in this case real precedence but peculiar temporal relation, that of a quick succession of events or actions, often overlapping. Pseudo-complex sentences§ 179. We shall consider sentences consisting of two clauses joined according to some pattern of subordination, but different from other complex sentences in the relation the clauses bear to one another. There are several types of pseudo-complex sentences. In the first type the splitting of the sentence into clauses is a device for the sake of emphasizing this or that part of the sentence; actually the meaning of the sentence does not require splitting (or cleaving) into clauses. These sentences are called emphatic (or cleft) sentences. Emphatic (or cleft) sentences § 180. These sentences in their turn fall into three patterns, in all of which the form of the complex sentence is used to emphasize some part of the sentence. In the first pattern the emphasized part is placed in the position of the predicative, which is followed by a clause. The main clause is patterned on the model of the it-clause and the subordinate clause may be patterned as an attributive, temporal, local or nominal clause. It is my friend who told me this. The role of the main clause is purely emphatic, as the information which is divided between the main and the subordinate clause can be expressed in a simple sentence. It is my friend who told me this ——> My friend told me this. It is the examination that you and I are concerned with ——-> You and I are concerned with the examination. If is not that she loved him ——> She did not love him. It was the idea they were buying, not the project ——> They were buying the idea, not the project. The emphatic position may be occupied by a whole clause. It was what she said that spoiled the impression. Was it because dusk was gathering that you failed to see anything? In the last two sentences the content of the predicative clause is emphasized. The position of the predicative serves for placing greater emphasis on the part occupying this position. Semantically the emphasized part may fulfil different roles. It was not till this very moment that I recollected him ——> did not recollect him till this very moment. (The emphasized part is adverbial modifier of time.) It is not that I hate you ——> I don’t hate you. (Negation is emphasized.) The cleft sentences and the simple ones given above are similar in meaning as they describe the same situation. The difference lies in a special accentuation of the bold-faced words. The subordinate clause may be joined asyndetically: It is not you I hate. Pseudo-complex sentences of this type may be interrogative. What is it that happened to you? What was it he disliked so much ? A sentence can be transformed into different cleft sentences depending on what element is to be emphasized. For example:
The second pattern of cleft sentences is used to emphasize the predicate, which is split into the operator in the subordinate subject clause and the infinitive in the main clause. What John liked was to read books at home. What he disliked so much was to be addressed by passers-by. The particle to is often omitted. What he has done is spoil the whole thing. The third pattern of pseudo-complex emphatic sentences begins with the conjunction if, which does not introduce a conditional clause. If I feel sorry for anyone it’s Norman ——> I really feel sorry for Normal. Appended clauses (повторы с уточнением)§ 181. There are several varieties of appended clauses, modelled on the pattern of the main clause. These are used to intensify or reinforce a statement in the previous clause. The most common type of appended clauses are tag questions (tags). You are tired, aren't you? You are not ill, are you? In non-formal style there is another form of appended clause, which is elliptical. He is always very gloomy, is that John of yours. She is a clever girl, is your friend. In such sentences the link-verb to be is generally repeated, or a form of the verb to do is used. He never told me anything, did your brother. Note: The appended part may consist only of a nominal group. He is a clever boy, your brother John. Such cases should not be confused with appended clauses. Absolute (or indendent) subordinate clauses§ 182. Subordinate clauses may be used absolutely as independent exclamatory sentences. They may have the form of a conditional or comparative clause. If only I knew his address! As though you didn’t know! That he should be so late! Parenthetical clauses (parentheses)§ 183. A parenthetical clause (parenthesis) interrupts another sentence with which it is either not connected syntactically or is only loosely connected with separate parts of the sentence. Parenthetical clauses are often called comment clauses, because they do not simply add to the information given in the sentence, but comment on its truth, the manner of saying it, or express the attitude of the speaker toward it. In some cases it is direct address to the listener or reader. He waited (which was his normal occupation) and thought, like other citizens, of the cost of living... (Some information is added.) ...there is, as it were, a transparent barrier between myself and strong emotions. (The figurative meaning of the utterance is indicated.) My parents, you know, were peasants. (Direct address to the listener.) Parenthetical clauses may occur in front, mid- and end position, but the end position is mainly restricted to informal style. They are usually marked off from the rest of the sentence by commas, dashes, or parentheses (brackets) in written English and by a separate tone unit in speech. Parenthetical clauses may be patterned like independent sentences, coordinate, main, or subordinate clauses. In all cases the mechanism of turning a sentence or clause into a parenthesis is the same - the inverting of their usual sequence or placing the parenthetical clause in an unusual position, which changes their communicative value. The embedded (включенное) structure acquires a secondary status, informing the reader of the author's opinion of the utterance, or containing some comment on the content of the embedding (включающее) sentence, or else addressing the reader directly. The embedding structure is primary in importance and structurally independent. The following sentences may be taken as examples: Although the evening was still light - we dined early - the lamps were on. (a parenthetical clause patterned like an independent sentence) She cooked - and she was a good cook - and marketed and chatted with the delivery boys. (a parenthetical clause patterned like a coordinate clause) As you put it, it sounds convincing, (a parenthetical clause patterned like an adverbial clause of manner) Does your objection to tea (which I do frightfully want) mean that we’re unlikely to be alone? (a parenthetical clause patterned like an attributive clause) Mr. Ford - if this was now to be his name - walked slowly up to the counter, (a parenthetical clause patterned like an adverbial clause of condition) Parenthetical clauses may be patterned like different communicative types of sentences or clauses - statements, questions, imperative or exclamatory sentences or clauses. It was - why hadn’t he noticed it before? - beginning to be an effort for her to hold her back straight, (a parenthetical clause patterned like a why-question) I felt - such curious shapes egoism fakes! - that they had come because of me. (a parenthetical clause patterned like an exclamatory sentence) Clauses patterned like main clauses with verbs of saying and those denoting mental activity (he thought, the author said, etc.) may have an inverted order (thought he, said the author). Quite a number of parenthetical clauses are stereotyped conversation formulas, used to attract the listener’s attention or to show the reaction of the speaker (you know, you see, I see, etc.). | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
