Учебник Кобрина. Грамматика. Синтаксис.1999. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических институтов и университетов по специальности 2103 "Иностранные языки". Спб., Союз, 1999. 496 с
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Functional classification of subordinate clauses§ 148. Subordinate clauses function as different parts of the sentence (subject, predicative, object, apposition, attribute, adverbial modifier). Traditionally these numerous types of clauses are arranged in three groups: nominal clauses (that is, clauses functioning as nouns in various syntactical positions), attributive clauses, and adverbial clauses. The complex sentence with nominal clauses§ 149. All nominal clauses have a function approximating to that of a noun or a nominal phrase. They may fulfil the function of a basic part of the main clause: a subject clause functions as subject of the main clause which has no subject of its own, a predicative clause functions as predicative to the link verb within the main clause; an object clause refers to verbs in different forms and functions, to adjectives, statives and occasionally to nouns, and may be obligatory or optional. Another type of the nominal clause - an appositive clause, refers to a noun either with a very general meaning or requiring additional information and is therefore essential to the meaning of the sentence. Owing to their essential structural and semantic role in the sentence, all nominal clauses are very closely connected with the main clause, and if such a clause is removed, both the structure and meaning of the sentence are changed or become ungrammatical. Because of the close relationship between the clauses the complex sentence is pronounced as one whole, and the subordinate clause is not commad off, unless it is much extended and contains constructions or detached parts. Since nominal clauses function as essential structural parts of the sentence, their relations to the main clause are confined to such purely grammatical sentential relations as subjective, predicative, objective and appositive. The complex sentence with a subject clause § 150. A subject clause may be introduced by conjunctions (that, if, whether, whether... or, because, the way) or connectives. The latter may be either conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which) or conjunctive adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, how, why). Types of subject clauses § 151. Complex sentences with subject clauses may be of two patterns: I. When a subject clause precedes the predicate of the main clause: What I need is a piece of good advice. Whether I talked or not made little difference. Because I ask too many questions does not mean I am curious. How the book will sell depends on its plot and the author. That he is a madman in an advanced stage of mania goes without saying. Whoever moved in next would need it more than I. Subject clauses of this type cannot be joined asyndetically, as the opening words signal the subordinate status of the clause. The main clause having no subject is deficient in its structure and meaning unless joined with the subordinate clause. Thus the combination of words *is a good piece of advice is neither complete in its structure nor in its meaning without the subject: What you say is a good piece of advice. II. When a subject clause is in final position, the usual place of the subject being occupied by formal it: It seemed unfair to him that he should suffer more than his wife. It is understood that modern science allows such experiments. In exclamatory sentences the formal it may be only implied. How wonderful that they should meet at last! (How wonderful it is...) In this pattern of the complex sentence the subject clause may be joined asyndetically. The complex sentence with a predicative clause § 152. A predicative clause may be introduced by conjunctions (that, whether, whether... or, as, as if, as though, because, lest, the way), or connectives. The latter may be conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which) or conjunctive adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, how, why). The fact was that he had forgotten about it. The only reason for my coining is because I hoped to see you again. Our fear was lest we should miss him in the crowd. That’s what he wants you to think. The choice of conjunction is closely connected with the meaning of the word functioning as the subject of the main clause. Thus the conjunction because is used when the word functioning as subject expresses reason, the conjunction whether — when it expresses doubt or implies choice. The connective when is used when the noun functioning as subject expresses a temporal notion (time, day, evening, moment) and the connective where is used when it denotes a place. Thus in the sentence given above The only reason for my coming is because I hoped to see you again the meaning of the subject reason predetermines the use of the conjunction because. In the same way in the sentence The question is whether we can manage without him the meaning of the subject question predetermines the conjunction whether. This, however, does not mean that a certain conjunction is the only possible one, and that no other can be used after a certain word functioning as subject. If the subject denotes order, proposal, request, suggestion, arrangement, desire, etc., the conjunction that is generally used, followed by a clause with the predicate in the subjunctive mood (should + infinitive). The regulation was that the first examination should be done in writing. Our proposal is that you should join in. Their suggestion was that no one should interfere. Predicative clauses with comparative meaning are introduced by the comparative conjunctions as, as if, as though. It was as though our last meeting was forgotten. Everything remained as it used to be in this room. She looks as if she were ill. Note: Predicative clauses introduced by the conjunctions as, as if, as though should not be confused with adverbial clauses of comparison introduced by the same conjunctions. A predicative clause immediately follows the link verb, which does not express complete predication without the clause. In the case of an adverbial clause, the preceding verb is that of complete predication and the clause may be distant from the verb it modifies, for instance: Mrs Abinger hated to be talked to as if she were a child. The Frenchman nodded vigorously, as though it were the most reasonable statement in the world. Predicative clauses may be joined asyndetically. In this case they are usually separated by a comma or a dash. The result was, his master raised his wages a hundred a month. As can be seen from the above examples, a predicative clause has a fixed position in the sentence - it always follows a link verb, with which it forms a compound nominal predicate. The link verbs used with predicative clauses are far less numerous than those used with the nonclausal predicatives. The most common are to be, to feel, to look, to seem. Less frequent are to appear, to remain, to become, to sound, to taste. Types of predicative clauses § 153. Predicative clauses may occur as parts of two structurally different kinds of sentences: I. They may follow the main clause in which the subject is a notional word, although it usually has a very general meaning (thing, question, problem, news, sensation, evil, rule, trouble, etc.). In this case the predicative clause discloses the meaning of the subject. The rule was that they walked down to the cliff path and travelled up in the lift. The trouble was whether we could manage it ourselves or not. The problem is not who will go, but who will stay. II. The predicative clause may follow the main clause in which the subject is expressed by the impersonal pronoun it. In this case the predicative clause describes the situation, either directly or by means of comparison. It appears he hasn’t been there. It sounded as if even the spring began by act of Parliament. Note: Care should be taken not to confuse this last type of sentence with complex sentences with a subject clause, which also begins with it. In the latter case the predicate of the main clause is complete, whereas in the case of a predicative clause it consists only of the link verb. Compare the following sentences: It seems that there is no cure. (a predicative clause) It seems evident that there is no cure. (a subject clause, the predicate ‘seem evident’ is complete) The complex sentence with an object clause § 154. An object clause may be introduced by conjunctions (that, if, whether, whether... or, lest), or connectives. The latter may be conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which), or conjunctive adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, why, how). An object clause may refer to any verbal form, either finite or nonfinite Jon followed, wondering if he had offended her. I don’t know why I like you so much. I left her to do whatever she thought fit. She often reproached herself for what she had said. He was terrified that she would forget about it soon. An object clause may either follow or precede the main clause; it may be joined asyndetically and in this case it always follows the main clause. Swithin said he would go back to lunch at Timothy’s. What she thinks it would be impossible to say. Object clauses may refer to some adjectives expressing perception, desire, feeling, assurance (certain, sure, sorry, pleased, desirous, jealous, anxious, etc.), and to statives (aware, afraid, etc.). Certain that Hugh was really following the girl, he had but to keep him in sight and remain unseen. I’m very sorry I disturbed you. He was anxious lest somebody should guess his secret. He was glad that no one was at home. After some adjectives denoting a state (glad, sorry, happy, etc.) the object clause may imply semantically the cause of that state. This similarity to an adverbial clause of cause may present some difficulty in analysing such sentences as: I am very sorry I disturbed you ——→ I am very sorry because I disturbed you. After adjectives and participles denoting wish or intention (anxious, determined, interested, etc.) the object clause may imply purpose: I am anxious that you should succeed. Occasionally an object clause may refer to a verbal noun. She had green eyes and a spattering of what Joseph called American freckles across the bridge of her nose. Types of object clauses § 155. Like objects in a simple sentence, object clauses may vary in their relation to the principal clause and in the way they are attached to the word they refer to or depend on. 1. An object clause may directly follow the word it refers to (a non-prepositional object clause). In this case it is parallel in function to a direct object. Jon wondered if he had offended her. I know when I am wasting time. A typical most recurrent type of object clauses is indirect speech following verbs of saying. He said he had never heard of it. He asked me if I wanted to stay. Object clauses of this subtype are more informative than their main clauses, the role of the latter being relegated to that of introducing the source of information. Like subject clauses, object clauses may be preceded by the formal it, usually after the verbs to feel, to believe, to consider, to find, to take, to like, to insist on, etc. You may take it that it is a genuine check. I like it when people are nice to me. I insist upon it that you tell me all the details. You are to see to it that there should be no quarrel. An object clause may refer to formal it followed by the objective predicative after the verbs to think, to find, to make, to consider, etc. I found it strange that she could speak so calmly. I think it necessary that you should go there at once. He made it clear that his intentions were honest. 2. Object clauses parallel in function to indirect objects are very rare. However, they are possible, the necessary condition for it being that the object clause should be followed by a direct object. You may give whoever you like any presents. 3. There are also cases when an object clause functions like a cognate object to a verb. He and his mamma knew very few people and lived what might have been thought very lonely lives. 4. An object clause may be joined to the main clause by the prepositions after, about, before, beyond, for, near, of, as to, except, etc. (a prepositional object clause). In this case it is parallel in function to a prepositional non-recipient object. If a preposition is very closely attached to the preceding verb or adjective (to agree upon, to call for, to comment upon, to depend on, to hear of, to insist on, to be certain of, to be sorry for, etc.) it generally precedes the object clause. I am not certain of what he did. I want to be paid for what I do. Some prepositions which would be indispensable before nouns or gerunds used as objects are not always necessary before object clauses. We insisted that he should stay with us. (We insisted on his staying with us.) We agreed that the experiment should be stopped. (We agreed upon stopping the experiment.) The preposition is retained when there is a formal object it foilowed by an object clause. We insisted on it that he should stay with us. We agreed upon it that the experiment should be stopped. The complex sentence with an appositive (content) clause § 156. An appositive clause may be introduced by conjunctions (that, if, whether, as if, as though), conjunctive pronouns and adverbs (why, how). They are not separated by a comma and cannot be joined asyndetically. Unlike an apposition in a simple sentence, which usually gives another name to the person or thing designated by the antecedent, an appositive clause discloses the meaning of a noun (which is also called the antecedent) with a very general meaning, such as:, thing, reason, point, moral, comment, remark, probability, idea, fact, consequence, feature, etc. The following sentences can be given as examples: The question whether it was he or his enemy was hotly discussed. She had a strange sensation as if something had happened. Andrew had a warm desire that the conversation might continue. The question how and why those people got the information still worried him. Appositive clauses may refer to a whole clause. Cecilia at once noted what Stephen in his preoccupation had not that Hilary had come to tell them something. She said it had only convinced her of what she had known from the first, that the creature had low taste. |