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The Russian Federation is a Presidential (or a constitutional) republic. The President is the head of the state and is elected directly by the people for a term of six years. In fact he has much power, he controls all the three branches of power. The president can even dissolve the Duma if it doesn’t agree with his suggestions three times running. The President has his administration, but it’s not part of the Federal Government. The president is involved in the work of the legislative and executive branches. The Federal Assembly represents the legislative branch of power. It’s made up of the two houses: the Federation Counsel and the State Duma, which makes laws. The Federal Assembly is also called the Parliament. Both chambers are headed by chairmen called speakers. The Duma consists of 450 deputies (one half is elected personally by the population, and the other half consists of the deputies who are appointed by their parties voting). The members of the Federation Counsel are two representatives of each subject of the RF 85 subjects. Every law to be adopted must be approved by the State Duma, the Councel of Federation and signed by the President. The president can veto the laws passed by the Federal Assembly. The Federal Government represents the executive branch of power. The President appoints its head, the Chairman of the Government. The judicial branch of power consists of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court and lower courts. The sovereign reigns but doesn’t rule. – Монарх царствует, но не правит. hereditary – наследственный executive (branch) – исполнительная (ветвь власти) legislative (body) – законодательный (орган) judiciary – правосудие соmmander-in-chief of the Armed Forces – главнокомандующий вооруженными силами temporal head – светский глава summon (Parliament) – созывать (парламент) dissolve – распустить the supreme legislative body – высший законодательный орган the House of Commons – палата общин the House of Lords – палата лордов elect by secret ballot – избирать тайным голосованием hold elections – проводить выборы legislation – законодательство scrutiny – тщательное изучение (исследование) preside – председательствовать executive (branch) – исполнительная (ветвь власти) appoint – назначать legislative power is vested in – законодательная власть сосредоточена в the Senate – сенат the House of Representatives – палата представителей enforce federal laws – проводить в жизнь федеральные законы judicial branch – судебная ветвь власти Federal Assembly – Федеральное Собрание make laws – создавать законы pass laws – принимать законы Supreme Court – Верховный Суд lower courts – нижестоящие суды T 6 Russian Police The police is the federal law-enforcement agency in Russia, operating under the Ministry of Internal Affairs. It was established in 2011, replacing the militsiya, the former police service. It is the federal police service of Russia that operates according to the law on police (Закон "о полиции"), which has been approved by the Federal Assembly and subsequently signed into law on February 7, 2011 by President of Russian Federation, Dmitry Medvedev. The police force in Saint Petersburg was established as the Main Police on June 7, 1718 by decree from Peter the Great. Anton de Vieira was appointed as the first General Polizmeister. On January 19, 1722 the Governing Senate established the Moscow Police. The Detective Department was founded in 1866 operating under the Police Department of MVD, and by 1907 similar departments had been created in other major cities of the Russian Empire, including Moscow, Kiev, Riga, Odessa, Tiflis, Baku and Rostov-on-Don. Other districts were policed by rural police or gendarmerie units. The police force of Saint Petersburg provided the main opposition to the rioting which marked the initial outbreak of the February Revolution. After the army units garrisoning the city defected, the police became the main target of the revolutionaries and a number were killed. The Police of the Russian Empire was dissolved on March 10, 1917, and on April 17 the Provisional Government established the People's Militia (Militsiya) as a new law enforcement body. Police of the USA In the United States, state police are a police body unique to each U.S. state, having statewide authority to conduct law enforcement activities and criminal investigations. In general, they perform functions outside the jurisdiction of the county sheriff, such as enforcing traffic laws on state highways and interstate expressways, overseeing the security of the state capitol complex, protecting the governor, training new officers for local police forces too small to operate an academy and providing technological and scientific services. They support local police and help to coordinate multi-jurisdictional task force activity in serious or complicated cases in those states that grant full police powers statewide. A general trend has been to bring all of these agencies under a state-level Department of Public Safety. Additionally, they may serve under different state departments, such as the Highway Patrol under the state Department of Transportation and the Marine patrol under the Department of Natural Resources. Twenty-three U.S. states use the term "State Police." Forty-nine states have a State Police agency or its equivalent, with Hawaii being the only state without a statewide police agency. Police of the UK There are 45 territorial police services as of 2013, which cover a police area (a particular region) and have an independent police authority (England and Wales) or local authority or joint police board (Scotland). The Police Act 1996, the Police (Scotland) Act 1967 and the Police (Northern Ireland) Act 2000, prescribe a number of issues such as appointment of a chief constable, jurisdiction and responsibilities for police forces in England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland respectively. Since the introduction of Police and Crime Commissioners in November 2012 the police services in England and Wales no longer have a police authority and this work is done by the police and crime prevention commissioners who are elected every four years. Some territorial police services host specialist bodies that operate in more than one area of the United Kingdom, such the Specialist Operations directorate of the Metropolitan Police. T 7 Courts of the United Kingdom, the United States of America, the Russian Federation The courts of the UK are separated into three separate jurisdictions, the courts of England and Wales, courts of Scotland and the courts of Northern Ireland, as the UK does not have a single unified judicial system. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 created a new Supreme Court of the UK to take over judicial functions of the House of Lords. The Supreme Court began work in 2009, and serves as the highest court of appeal in England and Wales and in Northern Ireland, and for civil cases in Scotland. The High Court of Justiciary remains the court of last resort in Scotland for criminal cases. Different types of cases are dealt with in specific courts: for example, all criminal cases will start in magistrates’ court, but the more serious criminal matters are committed (sent) to the Crown Court. Appeals from the Crown Court will go to the High Court, and potentially, to the Court of Appeal or even to the Supreme Court. Civil cases will sometimes be dealt with by magistrates, but may well go to a county court. Again, appeals will go to the High Court and then to the Court of Appeal (to different divisions). The Supreme Court is the final court of appeal in the UK for civil cases, and for criminal cases from England, Wales and Northern Ireland. It hears cases of the greatest public or constitutional importance affecting the whole population. A separate judicial branch of government in the USA operates independently alongside the executive and legislative branches. Within the judicial branch, authority is divided between state and federal courts. At the head of the judicial branch is the Supreme Court, the final interpreter of the Constitution. States have certain rights and authorities beyond the power of the federal government. States have the power to establish their own systems of criminal and civil laws, with the result that each state has its own laws, prisons, police force, and state court. Within each state, there are also county and city courts. State laws are quite similar, but in some areas there is great diversity. The minimum age for marriage and the sentences for murder vary from state to state. The separate system of federal courts handles cases which arise under the US Constitution or under any law or treaty, as well as any controversy to which the federal government is itself a party. Federal courts also hear disputes involving governments or citizens of different states. The Supreme Court hears cases in which someone claims that lower court ruling is unjust or in which someone claims that Constitutional law has been violated. Its decisions are final and become legally binding. The law of the USA was originally derived from common law system of English law, which has diverged greatly from its ancestor. The principal law governing the Russian court system is the 1996 Federal Constitutional Law “On the Judicial System of the Russian Federation”. The judicial system of the RF is made up of several types of courts: the RF Supreme Court, republic supreme courts, okrug courts, regional courts, Moscow and St. Petersburg city courts, autonomous region courts, autonomous okrug courts, district (city) courts and military courts. The RF Supreme Court is a higher judicial body dealing with civil, criminal, administrative and other cases. In civil and criminal cases there are courts of primary jurisdiction, courts of appeal and higher courts, which arbitrate lower courts sentences and decisions already in force. Special courts – the Constitutional Court, whose authorities are defined by the Constitution, – play a particular role in the exercising of judicial power in the RF. 98-99 per cent of all civil and criminal cases are judged by general courts at the lowest level, called district and city courts. They also deal with administrative offences, complaints, etc. There are 2,454 public (district or city) courts in the RF with 13,000 judges. Decisions and sentences which did not come into force can be appealed only once and only at the immediately superior court. Higher courts decisions and sentences cannot be appealed or protested. single unified judicial system – единая судебная система three separate jurisdictions – три отдельные судебные системы the highest court of appeal – высший апелляционный суд the court of last resort – суд последней инстанции to commit = send – передать дело в вышестоящий суд the High Court – Высокий суд правосудия the Supreme Court – Верховный суд the final court of appeal – конечная апелляционная инстанция hear cases of the greatest public or constitutional importance – слушать дела, представляющие a separate judicial branch – отдельная судебная ветвь operate independently alongside the executive and legislative branches – действовать независимо наряду с исполнительной и законодательной ветвями state and federal courts – суды штатов и федеральные controversy – спор the final interpreter of the Constitution – окончательный толкователь Конституции to establish their own systems of criminal and civil laws – создавать собственные системы уголовных и гражданских законов similar - похожий diversity – отличие vary from state to state – в различных штатах различны deal with administrative offences – рассматривать административные нарушения courts of primary jurisdiction – суды первичной юрисдикции military courts – военные суды T 8 The System of Punishment The first purpose of punishment is to rehabilitate the offender, to reform him or her, to assist the offender to return to normal life. Secondly, punishment can also be seen as a deterrent because it warns other people, prevents them from breaking the law. The third purpose of punishment lies in society's desire for retribution. Of course, the punishment should fit the crime. A society should show a more humane attitude to punishment and try to understand why a person commits a crime. Society should enable him to live a respectable, law-abiding life. In England, there are no maximum sentences, except for murder, which carries a penalty of life imprisonment. There are minimum sentences for other crimes. Crimes are first heard by magistrate who can either pass sentence or refer (send) the crime to a Crown Court with a judge and jury. Sentences can be reduced for good behavior, often by one-third or more. “Life sentences” are rarely more than 14 years and it would be possible to release prisoners after seven years. General types of punishment in England are: prison; suspended sentence (the offender does not go to prison unless he or she commits another offence); probation (normal life at home, but under supervision); youth custody in special centres for young adults, short disciplinary training in a detention centre; community service (decorating old people's houses. etc.); compensation (paying or working for one's victim); fines (the punishment in 80 per cent of cases, especially for parking offences); disqualification (from driving). punishment - наказание purpose - цель to rehabilitate the offender - реабилитировать правонарушителя to reform - исправлять to assist - помогать to return to normal life - вернуться к нормальной жизни deterrent - удерживающее средство to prevent from breaking the law - предотвратить нарушение закона desire for retribution - желание возмездия fit - соответствовать humane attitude - гуманное отношение to commit a crime - совершить преступление to enable - давать возможность law-abiding life - законопослушная жизнь murder- предумышленное убийство penalty- наказание life imprisonment - пожизненное заключение to pass a sentence - вынести приговор to reduce sentences for good behavior - сократить приговор за хорошее поведение to release prisoners - освободить заключенных suspended sentence - отложенное вынесение приговора probation - испытание custody - заключение под стражу fine - штраф T 9 Law (legal) systems and their sources Different countries have different systems for making and updating laws. The two main ones are common law and civil law. Common law is the system used in England and Wales. It is mainly based on the idea of precedent when a court makes a decision about a case, that decision becomes a part of the law of the country. For example, murder is illegal in England not because of a government-made law, but because of the decisions of judges in earlier murder cases. It is possible for governments to add to or modify common law: for example, Acts of Parliament introduced a mandatory life sentence for murder, and removed a rule saying that the victim had to die within a year and a day for the attack for it to be murder. As well as in the UK, common law is used in many places that used to be part of the British Empire, such as India, Australia and the USA. Civil law is based on legislation – general written laws made by the government. In this legal system, the decisions of judges do not affect the laws of a country. Civil law is the most common legal system in the world: it is used in almost all of Europe, Asia, South America and Africa. It is also used in the US state of Louisiana, although all the other states use common law. It is sometimes known as Continental European law. Civil law is codified. Countries with civil law systems have comprehensive, continuously updated legal codes that specify all matters capable of being brought before a court. The civil law system developed from Roman Law, the legal system, used in Roman Empire. Civil law is subdivided into four distinct groups: French civil law, German civil law, Scandinavian civil law, Chinese law. Other systems. Some countries do not use either of these systems. For example, Iran, Nigeria and Saudi Arabia have legal systems based on Islamic law or sharia. Other countries use a mix of systems, blending civil and common law or incorporating religious law into one of the two main systems. to make (update) laws – создавать (изменять) законы common law – общее право civil law – гражданское право to make a decision about a case – принимать решение по делу murder – преднамеренное убийство illegal – незаконный, нелегальный modify – изменять, переделывать mandatory – обязательный sentence – приговор to be based on legislation – основываться на законодательстве Roman Law – римское право mix of systems – сочетание (смешение) систем blending – слияние, комбинирование sharia – [ʃəˊrỉ:ə] – шариат T 10 Law-enforcement Activities in Russia. Law-enforcement in Russian Federation (RF) is the responsibility of a variety of different agencies. The Russian police are the primary law enforcement agency, the Investigative Committee of Russia is the main investigative agency, sometimes described as the "Russian FBI", and the Federal Security Service is the main domestic security agency. System of law enforcement agencies can be divided into the judiciary (courts) and other law enforcement agencies. The judicial system includes the Constitutional Court of RF, the federal courts of general jurisdiction, the system of arbitration courts (district judges and constitutional (charter) courts) of the subjects of the RF. Russian Constitutional Court is a judicial body of constitutional control. Its main purpose is the protection of the constitutional order, fundamental rights and freedoms of citizens on the whole territory of the RF. The Internal troops deal with large-scale riots and internal armed conflicts. Federal Service of Punishment Execution is responsible for the penal correction and prison system in Russian Federation. The Federal Border Guard Service is responsible for border protection. The Federal Migration Service is responsible for immigration, etc. All these functions are interrelated and complementary. law-enforcement agencies — правоохранительные органы Investigative Committee — следственный комитет Federal Security Service — Федеральная служба безопасности courts of general jurisdiction — суды общей юрисдикции protection of the constitutional order — защита конституционного порядка judicial body of constitutional control — судебный орган конституционного контроля riot – бунт, восстание penal correction — уголовное исправление border protection — защити границ interrelated — взаимосвязанный complementary — взаимодополняющие друг друга A law enforcement agency in the USA is a government agency responsible for the enforcement of the laws. Some of these services are called police, others are known as sheriff's offices/departments, while investigative police services in the United States are often called bureaus, for example the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Policing in the United States is conducted by federal, state, local and city departments. Every state has its own nomenclature for agencies, and their powers, responsibilities and funding vary from state to state. At the federal level, there exist both federal police, who possess full federal authority as given to them under United States Code (U.S.C.), and federal law enforcement agencies, who are authorized to enforce various laws at the federal level (for example, the FBI Police). Most states operate statewide government agencies that provide law enforcement duties, including investigations and state patrols. They may be called state police or highway patrol, and are normally part of the state Department of Public Safety. County law enforcement is provided by sheriffs' departments or offices and county police. Law enforcement in the United Kingdom is organized separately in each of the legal systems of the United Kingdom: England and Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland. Most law enforcement is carried out by police officers serving in regional police services within one of those jurisdictions. These regional services are complemented by UK-wide agencies, such as the National Crime Agency, and specialist bodies hosted by regional police forces, such as the Specialist Operations directorate of the Metropolitan Police. There are three general types of law enforcement agency in the United Kingdom, the first is mostly concerned with policing the general public and their activities and the others are concerned with policing of more specific matters. Territorial police services, which carry out the majority of policing. There are 45 territorial police services as of 2013 that cover a police area (a particular region) and have an independent police authority (England and Wales) or local authority or joint police board (Scotland). The police service in England and Wales is done by the police and crime prevention commissioners who are elected every four years. Some territorial police services host specialist bodies that operate in more than one area of the United Kingdom, such the Specialist Operations directorate of the Metropolitan Police. National law enforcement agencies, including the National Crime Agency and British Transport Police. The Serious Organized Crime refers to these as "special police forces". The National Crime Agency operates across the United Kingdom against organized crime and acts as |