этапы отбора и ответы. Этапы отбора и ответы. REV2. Этапы отбора в Аэрофлот
 Скачать 7.89 Mb.
|
First and second modes (regimes) of horizontal flighthttps://studopedia.ru/8_194923_pervie-i-vtorie-rezhimi-gorizontalnogo-poleta.html The boundary of the first and second modes of horizontal flight is the economic speed of the horizontal flight. The flight of the aircraft in the first modes is carried out at low angles of attack, when the wing is flowed by a steady laminar airflow, the aircraft is well-stable and controllable. Therefore, usually use the first modes. With a random increase in the speed of horizontal flight, there is a negative excess of power, the aircraft will move with braking and will return to the initial speed. When the speed decreases, the excess power will be directed forward and the aircraft will also restore the speed of the initial mode. The flight in the second modes of horizontal flight occurs at high angles of attack and at horizontal flight speeds lower than the economic speed, which is associated with a deterioration of the flow around the wing and a decrease in the efficiency of the rudders, and thus a deterioration in the stability and controllability of the aircraft, especially the lateral one. Therefore, flying on the second modes is not recommended. They are resorted to only with some training flights and when landing. With the increase in speed, there is a positive excess of power, and if the pilot does not change the mode of operation of the engine and will maintain a horizontal flight, the increase in speed will continue until there is an equilibrium at the new speed Vi lying in the region of the first regimes. With an accidental decrease in speed, an excess of drag over the thrust causes the aircraft to decelerate to the minimum speed (the aircraft can fall into a tailspin). OAT, SAT, TATOAT is the ambient outside air temperature. Static Air Temperature (SAT) is the temperature of the undisturbed air through which the aircraft is about to fly. This is commonly used as a different name for OAT. Total Air Temperature (TAT) is the maximum temperature indicated on the air temperature instrument; it is a product of the static air temperature (SAT) and the adiabatic compression (ram) rise in temperature experienced on the temperature probe. Отличие VFR от IFRVisual flight rules (VFR) are a set of regulations under which a pilot operates an aircraft in weather conditions generally clear enough to allow the pilot to see where the aircraft is going. VFR require a pilot to be able to see outside the cockpit, to control the aircraft's altitude, navigate, and avoid obstacles and other aircraft. Pilots flying under VFR assume responsibility for their separation from all other aircraft and are generally not assigned routes or altitudes by air traffic control (ATC). VFR operations specify the amount of ceiling and the visibility the pilot must have in order to operate according to these rules. When the weather conditions are such that the pilot can not operate according to VFR, he must use instrument flight rules (IFR). Instrument flight rules (IFR). Rules and regulations governing flight under conditions in which flight by outside visual reference is not safe. IFR flight depends upon flying by reference to instruments in the flight deck, and navigation is accomplished by reference to electronic signals. To fly under IFR, a pilot must have an instrument rating and must be current (meet recency of experience requirements). IFR involves: Air traffic management, separation by ATC. Отличие IMC от VMCVisual meteorological conditions (VMC). Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling meeting or exceeding the minimums specified for VFR. We can use VMC when the ceiling is more than 1000 ft and the visibility is greater than 3 miles. Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from clouds, and ceiling less than the minimums specified for visual meteorological conditions, requiring operations to be conducted under IFR. We use IMC when the ceiling is less than 1000 ft and visibility is less than 3 miles. Your responsibility during IFR & VFR (difference)Air traffic controllers aren’t always required to keep VFR aircraft separated from each other like they do for IFR traffic. The responsibility for traffic separation lies solely with the pilot during VFR operations, which means he needs to be able to see in front of and around his aircraft while in the air. For this reason, VFR rules also cover visibility requirements and cloud clearance criteria required to fly with visual reference to the ground and/or horizon. These visibility and cloud clearance requirements vary depending on the type of airspace you’re flying in, but they exist to ensure that pilots flying VFR don’t get caught up in the clouds and crash into each other. Precision Approach, Non Precision Approach, ILS, NDB, VOR.Non precision approach – is a standard instrument approach procedure in which only horizontal guidance is provided. Non-precision approaches consist of localizer only, circle-to-land, VOR, NDBs, and all GPS approaches. Precision approach – is a standard instrument approach procedure in which both vertical and horizontal guidance is provided. This approach may be provided by a pilot interpreted aid such as ILS, MLS or by a ground controller. A non-directional beacon (NDB) is a medium-range radio navigational aid that sends out a signal in all directions for aircraft to home to. The NDB transmits in the 200- to 1750-kHz medium- and low-frequency bands and uses a surfacewave propagation path. The automatic direction finder (ADF) is a needle indicator fitted in the aircraft that shows the direction to the selected NDB from the aircraft. This is either displayed as a relative bearing (angle between the aircraft heading and the direction of the NDB) on a relative bearing indicator (RBI) instrument or as a QDM on an RMI instrument. When an aircraft’s Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) is tuned to an NDB’s frequency and its callsign identified, the direction of the NDB will be indicated. NDB approach is a non-precision approach that involves using of outer, middle and inner markers. NDBs are most commonly used as markers or "locators" for an instrument landing system (ILS) approach or standard approach. A VHF omni range (VOR) is a type of short-range radio navigation system for aircraft, enabling aircraft with a receiving unit to determine their position and stay on course by receiving radio signals transmitted by a network of fixed ground radio beacons. A VOR ground transmitter radiates line-of-sight signals in all directions. However, unlike a non-directional beacon (NDB), the signal in any particular direction differs slightly from its neighbor. These individual direction signals can be thought of as tracks or position lines radiating out from the VOR ground station. By convention, 360 different and separate tracks away from the VOR are used, each with its position related to magnetic north, i.e., 000 to 359 degrees. Distance-measuring equipment (DME) is a transponder-based radio navigation technology that measures slant range distance by timing the propagation delay of VHF or UHF radio signals. DME consists of an onboard aircraft interrogator and a ground beacon transponder (which is opposite to secondary surveillance radar, where the ground equipment is the interrogator and the aircraft equipment is the transponder). The aircraft’s interrogator initiates the exchange by transmitting a stream of pulses to the ground station, which then retransmits them back to the aircraft. The time delay between sending and receiving these pulses is converted into a range/distance. The ground stations are typically collocated with VORs. Combined with VOR, DME provides an extremely accurate position fix. DME is also coupled with Instrument Landing Systems, which makes fixed ground outer and middle marker beacons unnecessary. Because DME measures slant range rather than ground distance, an aircraft at 30,000 ft overhead the facility will get an indication of approximately 5 nm. The instrument landing system (ILS) is a ground-based instrument approach system that provides precision lateral and vertical guidance to an aircraft approaching and landing on a runway, using a combination of radio signals to enable a safe landing. Airborne equipment provides information to the pilot showing the aircraft’s displacement from the runway centerline and the displacement of the aircraft above or below the GS. Marker beacons and high intensity runways lights may also be provided as aids to the use of an ILS. Several aircraft can be on the ILS at the same time, several miles apart. An aircraft that has turned onto the inbound heading and is within two and a half degrees of the localizer course (half scale deflection or less shown by the course deviation indicator) is said to be established on the approach. Typically, an aircraft is established by at least 2 nautical miles or 3 km prior to the final approach fix (glideslope intercept at the specified altitude). An aircraft landing procedure can be either coupled where the autopilot or Flight Control Computer directly flies the aircraft and the flight crew monitor the operation, or uncoupled where the flight crew flies the aircraft manually to keep the localizer and glideslope indicators centered. An ILS consists of two independent sub-systems. The localizer provides lateral guidance; the glide slope provides vertical guidance. The aircraft needs its own ILS receiver to decipher the localizer and glide-slope information and then to display it on the indicator. The localizer. The purpose of the localizer (azimuth) beam is to provide tracking guidance along the extended runway centerline, i.e., azimuth guidance left and right of the extended runway centerline. Consists of antenna array normally placed about 1,000 feet from the far end of the approached runway and generally consists of several pairs of directional antennas. The signal is protected 10 degrees either side of the centerline up to a height of approximately 6000 ft and out to 25 nautical miles and 35 degrees on either side of the centerline out to 17 nautical miles. The ILS localizer works in the 108- to 112-MHz VHF band, which it shares with the VOR. To avoid confusion with VOR signals, the ILS uses frequencies at odd 100- and 150-kHz spacing. The glide slope. The purpose of the glide-slope (elevation) beam is to provide vertical guidance toward the runway touchdown point, i.e., vertical guidance above and below the glide slope. The glide slope is normally set at an angle of 3 degrees to give a reasonable rate of descent glide path, but exceptions may occur, usually to meet particular approach constraints such as terrain or noise abatement. The beam is 1.4° deep (0.7° below the glide-path centre and 0.7° above). The pilot controls the aircraft so that the glide slope indicator remains centered on the display to ensure the aircraft is following the glide path to remain above obstructions and reach the runway at the proper touchdown point. The glide slope transmitting aerial is usually situated about 300 m to one side of the runway touchdown zone to ensure adequate wheel clearance over the airfield fence. The GS aerials are usually located so that the glide-slope provides a runway threshold crossing height of about 50 ft. The coverage of the glide slope signals extends to 8 degrees on either side of the localizer centerline out to 10 nautical miles. The ILS glide path uses the 329.3- to 335-MHz UHF frequencies at 150-kHz spacing. The glide path frequency is selected automatically when its paired VHF localizer channel is selected. Distance-measuring equipment (DME) is usually paired with the ILS frequency so that it is selected automatically with the ILS. TCAS Traffic (Alert) Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) provides traffic information and maneuver advice between aircraft if their flight paths are conflicting with each other. TCAS is rapidly becoming a mandatory requirement around the world. TCAS I is an early system that provides traffic information only. TCAS II is a later system that provides additional maneuver advice but in the main is restricted to vertical separation. TCAS can cope with mode A, C, and S transponders. However, when both aircraft are equipped with TCAS II and mode S, the advice on how to avoid a collision will be coordinated by the mode S data link between the two aircraft. TCAS IV is a new system that will give resolution advisories (RAs) in the horizontal and vertical planes. However, further development of TCAS IV is likely to be canceled in, preference to ADS-B. TCAS uses the aircraft’s secondary surveillance radar (SSR) transponders to plot aircrafts position and relative velocities and is completely independent of any ground-based radar units. Direction-finding aerials obtain the relative bearings of other aircraft, and distance is calculated by using the time delay between the transmitted and received signals. With this information, the TCAS computer can determine the track and closing speeds of other aircraft fitted with transponders, and where it determines a collision is possible, it provides visual and aural warnings as well as command actions on how to avoid the collision. This is all done with vertical avoidance commands only. As yet, no turn commands are given. The warnings and advice (advised actions) from the system have different levels: Initially. A traffic advisory (ТА) warning is generated for other traffic that may become a threat. No maneuver is advised or should be taken. Collision threat. A resolution advisory (RA) warning is generated when an aircraft is considered to be on a collision course. Advice on a maneuver in the pitching plane, i.e., rate of climb or descent, to avoid the collision is generated that can be increased or decreased as the threat increases or reduces until a clear of conflict notice is given. Therefore, you only respond to an RA, which should be done promptly and smoothly and should take precedence over air traffic control (AТС) clearance to avoid immediate danger. RA use should be restricted in the following circumstances: In dense traffic area (limited to ТA use) Descent recommendations inhibited below 1000 ft All RAs inhibited below 500 ft (Note: All TAs also restricted below 400 ft) |