Nouns on -f or -fe:
add -s
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substitute with -ves
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singular
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plural
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singular
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plural
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a roof
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two roofs
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a thief
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two thieves
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a cliff
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two cliffs
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a wife
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two wives
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a sheriff
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two sheriffs
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a shelf
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two shelves
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Nouns on -o form the plural by adding -s or -es.
add -s
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substitute with -ves
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singular
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plural
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singular
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plural
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a disco
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two discos
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a tomato
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two tomatoes
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a piano
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two pianos
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a potato
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two potatoes
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a photo
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two photos
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a hero
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two heroes
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Some nouns can have two plural forms:
buffalo – buffalos / buffaloes
mosquito – mosquitos / mosquitoes
tornado – tornados / tornadoes
Irregular plural forms:
singular
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plural
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a man
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two men
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a woman
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two women
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a child
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two children
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a mouse
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two mice
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a tooth
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two teeth
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a goose
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two geese
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a foot
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two feet
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an ox
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two oxen
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3. THERE IS / THERE ARE
There is / There are is a common phrase in English, used to indicate that something exists or is in a certain location. The main subject follows the verb when there is/are is used.
There is an apple on the table.
There are some apples on the table.
Are there any apples in the shop?
There are no apples in my bag.
Other forms of the verb ‘to be’ can also be used with there is/there are.
There will be a party at Bill's house on Saturday.
There were four witnesses at the crime scene.
There have been two robberies in the last five months.
Contractions are possible, but they are mostly used in informal speech.
There's a fly in my soup.
There're plenty of oranges left.
Appendix 3
GRAMMAR REFERENCE SECTION
Tenses: present, past and future
State verbs
Time clauses.
Question tags
Conditional sentences
4. Infinitive, Bare Infinitive, Gerund / -ing form
5. Comparative forms
Table of irregular verbs
TENSES
PRESENT TENSES
Present Simple Tense
We use the present simple:
For permanent states. Tom works for a construction company.
For daily routines, repeated and habitual actions. He plays tennis twice a week.
For general truths and laws of nature. The sun sets in the west.
For timetables and programmes to replace the future tense. The first flight to London leaves at 9 am.
For sporting commentaries, reviews and narrations. Stevenson catches the ball and passes it to Johnson.
Time expressions used with the present simple:
usually, often, always, sometimes, rarely, seldom; every day/week/month/year, etc, in the morning/afternoon/evening; at night/the weekend, on Fridays, etc.
Present Continuous Tense
We use the present continuous
For actions taking place at or around the moment of speaking. Tina isdoing her homework at the moment.
For fixed arrangements in the near future. I am going to the dentist tomorrow. I've already booked an appointment.
For currently changing and developing situations. The pollution is increasing.
With adverbs such as always to express anger or irritation when an undesirable action happens too often but not always in reality. You’re always forgetting to close the door.
Time expressions used with the present continuous:
now, at the moment, at present, these days, nowadays, still, today, tonight, always, etc.
Note:
Always + present simple: “every time”. I always have breakfast before I go to work.
Always + present continuous:“too/very often”. You are always complaining!
We cannot use never... again with the present simple. I am never going camping with you again. (NOT: I never go camping with you again).
Present Perfect Tense
We use the present perfect:
For an action which started in the past and continues up to the present, especially with stative verbs such as be, have, like, know, etc. I have known Dave for years.
For a recently completed action whose result is visible in the present. A new French restaurant has just opened in Bridge Street. We're going there for dinner tomorrow.
For an action that happened at an unstated time in the past. The emphasis is on the action. The time that it occurred is unimportant or unknown. I have visited Portugal. (When? Unstated time.)
Note:
already is used in statements after the auxiliary verb and in questions after the main verb. I have already finished. Have you finished already?
yet is used in negative sentences after a negative contracted auxiliary verb or at the end of the sentence. She hasn’‘t yet finished the report. She hasn't finished the report yet.
still is used in statements and questions after the auxiliary verb or before the main verb. I am still painting the house. He still lives in Hong Kong.
However, still comes before the auxiliary verb in negations. She still hasn't finished her homework.
Time expressions used with the present perfect:
for, since, already, always, just, ever, never, so far, today, this week/month etc, how long, lately, recently, still (in negations), etc.
 Present Perfect- Continuous Tense
We use the present perfect continuous:
To put emphasis on the duration of an action which started in the past and continues up to the present, used with action verbs and with words and expressions such as for, since, all morning/day/year and How long? The boys have been playing football for hours.
For an action which started in the past and which lasted for some time. The action may still be continuing or have finished already with the result visible in the present. For this situation two sentences are used. Ken is really tired. He has been working hard all week.
To express anger, irritation, or annoyance. They have been listening to that loud music all night.
For repeated actions in the past continuing to the present. I have been taking Spanish lessons at night school.
Note:
With the verbs live, work, teach and feel we can use the present perfect or the present perfect- continuous with no difference in meaning. He has taught/has been teaching at the school for more than twenty years.
Time expressions used with the present perfect-continuous:
For, since, how long, recently
STATIVE / STATE VERBS
Stative verbs are the verbs which describe a state rather than an action, they do not have a continuous tense. These verbs are:
verbs of the senses (see, hear, taste, feel, look, sound etc). I can hear the train approaching.
verbs of perception / opinion (agree, know, believe, understand, realise, remember, suppose, forget etc). I understand what you are saying.
verbs which express likes and dislikes / verbs of feelings and emotions (like, dislike, love, adore, hate, enjoy, forgive, prefer, detest, etc). The children enjoy reading.
and some other verbs (be, contain, include, belong, fit, need, matter, mean, cost, concern, depend, own, want, weigh, wish, have (possess), keep etc). That car belongs to Joe.
Some of these verbs are used in continuous tenses when they describe actions rather than states.
Present Simple
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Present Continuous
|
She is very patient (- character.)
I think it’s a wonderful film (- I believe).
They have (got) a swimming pool
(- they possess).
Your mother looks very tired (- she appears to be).
I can see your house from here (- I use my eyes).
1 see what you mean. (understand).
|
He is being very good. (-behaviour.)
I'm thinking of buying a new house
(- I'm considering.)
They’re having a wonderful holiday.
(- they are enjoying themselves.)
The architect is looking at the plans.
(- he is checking/ examining.)
Are you seeing the dentist tomorrow?
(- are you meeting?)
You’re seeing things. There is no one there (- you are imagining)
|
This blouse feels like silk (- it has the texture of).
This chicken tastes delicious (- it has a delicious flavour).
These flowers smell nice (- have a nice smell).
She appears to be very angry. (- she seems to be).
These shoes fit me perfectly (- they are the right size).
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Mum isfeeling Tim’s forehead (- she is touching).
The chef is tasting the soup to see if it is alright (- he is testing the flavour).
She’s smelling the roses (- she is sniffing).
We areappearing at Central Park next weekend (- we are performing).
Peter is fitting new locks on all the doors (- he is attaching).
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Note:
The verb enjoy can be used in continuous tenses to express a specific preference. I'm enjoying this film a lot (specific preference).
BUT: I enjoy going sailing, (general preference)
The verbs look (when we refer to smb’s appearance), feel (experience a particular emotion), hurt and ache can be used in the continuous or the simple tenses with no difference in meaning. You look wonderful today, or You are looking wonderful today. She feels sick, or She is feeling sick.
TIME CLAUSES
With time clauses we use the present simple or present perfect, but NOT future forms. We use words and expressions such as while, before, after, until / till, as, when, whenever, once, as soon as, as long as, by the time, etc to introduce time clauses.
- By the time he arrives, it will be dark. (NOT; By tho time he will arrive...)
We also use the present simple and present perfect but NOT future forms after words and expressions such as unless, if, suppose/supposing, in case, etc.
- If she wants more information, tell her to call me. (NOT-lf she will want..,)
We use future forms with: when - when it is used as a question word.
- When will you be seeing Mike next ?
if/whether - after expressions which show uncertainty, ignorance, etc, such as I don't know, I doubt, I wonder, I'm not sure, etc.
- I doubt whether she will come tonight.
PAST TENSES
Past Simple Tense
We use the past simple:
For an action that happened at a definite time (stated or implied) in the past. Tina arrived in Vienna last week.
For actions that happened immediately after one another in the past. He left the house, walked to the station and caught the 5:05 train to New York.
For past habits or states which are now finished, usually it is used with used to: I worked for Morton’s when I was younger. Now I don’t. I used to work for the company when I was younger.
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