Theory of translation

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Chapter 8. SYNTACTIC CHANGES IN TRANSLATION

§1. COMMUNICATIVE STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN SENTENCE

Each sentence can be spoken of in different aspects. A syntactic aspect implies the sentence analysis in terms of parts of the sentence (sentence subject, predicate, object, attribute, adverbial modifier). Syntax reveals the relation of sentence parts to each other. A semantic aspect implies the relation of sentence components to the elements of the real situation named by the sentence. This can be done in terms of case grammar¹³⁹ or reference theory,¹⁴⁰ or by singling out the agent, object and other semantic roles. A third aspect is pragmatic, or communicative. It implies the relation of the sentence to its users. The speaker makes up a sentence so as to stress logically this or that part of the information conveyed by the sentence. Therefore, this type of sentence structure is called information (communicative) structure, and this type of sentence analysis is referred to as actual division of the sentence,¹⁴¹ or functional sentence

perspective.¹⁴²

Normally, each sentence develops from a known piece of information, called the theme, to a new one, called the rheme. The rhematic component is the information center of the sentence. It is logically stressed. It can be easily singled out in speech by contrasting it to some other word: The early bird catches the worm, not the trap. The early bird catches the worm, not the late one. The rhematic word usually answers a special question: e.g., Whom does the early bird catch? - The early bird catches theworm. What kind of bird catches the worm? – The early bird catches the worm.

In addition to the methods of contrasting and questioning, there are some other signals for the rhematic component. They include:

• 
  the indefinite article of the sentence subject: A little evil is often necessary for obtaining a great good.
  
• 
  a long extended part of the sentence; compare: Many people saw it. – People saw it.
  
• 
  negation: Not he who has much is rich, but he who gives much.
  
• 
  intensifiers (only, even, just, such as, etc.): Only the educated are free. (Cf. The educated are free.)
  
• 
  some special constructions (there is; it is… (who); passive constructions with the by-agent expressed): It is human nature to think wisely and to act foolishly.
  

The sentence communicative structure is different in English and in Russian. In Russian it is more rigid, which compensates a loose word order of the sentence. English fixed word order, on the other hand, is compensated by a free, to some extent, functional sentence perspective. In Russian neutral style, the theme precedes the rheme, which means that a logically stressed part of the sentence is in the final position. In English, the rheme can be interrupted by the theme or even precede the theme: There is an unknown word in the text. (T-R-T) – В тексте есть незнакомое слово. (T-R).

§2. WORD ORDER CHANGE DUE TO THE FUNCTIONAL SENTENCE PERSPECTIVE

When the English and Russian functional sentence perspectives do not coincide, a word order change is applied in translation.

Thus, the rhematic subject in English usually takes the initial position, whereas in Russian it should be placed at the end of the sentence: A faint perfume of jasmine came through the open window. (O.Wilde) – Сквозь открытое окно доносился легкий аромат жасмина. A waitress came to their table. – К их столику подошла официантка.

This transformation is evident in comparing the structures with the subjects introduced by the definite and indefinite articles. A sentence that has the definite article with the subject has the same word order: The woman entered the house. – Женщина вошла в дом. On the other hand, a word order change takes place in a similar sentence if its subject is determined by the indefinite article: A woman entered the house. – В дом вошла женщина.

To emphasize the rhematic subject of the sentence, the construction it is … that (who) can be used in English. For example, It is not by means of any tricks or devices that the remarkable effect of Milton’s verse is produced. – Удивительный эффект стихов Мильтона объясняется вовсе не какими-то особыми ухищрениями.¹⁴³The rhematic component is positioned at the end of the Russian sentence.Another example: It was the Russian-born American physicist Vladimir Zworykin who made the first electronic television in the 1920s. – Именно Владимир Зворыкин, американский физик русского происхождения, создал электронный телевизор в 20-х годах XX столетия. In Russian, the emphasis on the semantic center of the sentence is made either with the help of the intensifier (именно), or else the meaning can be rendered through a change of word order: Электронный телевизор в 20-х годах XX столетия создал Владимир Зворыкин, американский физик русского происхождения.

Thematic components in Russian are shifted to the initial position, which often happens with objects and adverbial modifiers: It was early for that. – Для этого еще было рано. A typical case is the sentence introduced by there is/are.

Here the subject is rhematic and the adverbial modifier of place is thematic. Therefore, the construction is normally translated into Russian with the adverbial in the initial position: There is a book on the table. – На столе лежит книга. Compare this sentence with one of a thematic subject: The book is on the table. – Книга лежит на столе. If there is no adverbial modifier of place in the English sentence (to start the translation), the sentence beginning with there is is rendered in Russian by the verb существует: There are three kinds of solid body. – Существует три вида твердого тела.

Adverbial modifiers of place and time are usually mirrored in translation. Being thematic, they are positioned in the beginning of the Russian sentence, and in English they take the final position: Вчера в Москве состоялась встреча президента России с президентом Франции. – A meeting of the Russian president and the French president was held in Moscow yesterday.

A rhematic component expressing the agent of the action in the passive construction cannot be placed as the initial subject of the translated sentence: The telephone was invented by A. Bell. corresponds to Телефон изобрел А. Белл. (not to А. Белл изобрел телефон.)

§3. SENTENCE PARTITIONING AND INTEGRATION

Sentence partitioning means substituting a complex or compound sentence with several simple ones, or a simple sentence with a complex one, containing some clauses:

Sentence integration is the opposite transformation – substituting several simple sentences with a complex/compound one, or a complex sentence with a simple one.

These transformations can occur for the following reasons:

1. 
   Grammar structure differences between the source language and the target language. For example, there are some special constructions in English that do not exist in Russian. They are translated by a complex sentence (the Complex Object, Complex Subject, Absolute constructions, etc.).
   

I want you to speak English fluently. – Я хочу, чтобы вы бегло говорили по-английски.

They sat down to supper, Manson still talking cheerfully. – Они сели ужинать, а Мэнсон все еще оживленно говорил.

Sentence integration is necessary when the English sentence starts with the conjunctions or, nor, but, for, since the beginning of this type is alien to Russian written speech: Man is the only animal that blushes. Or needs to. (Shaw) – Человек –единственное существо, которое краснеет или которому надо бы краснеть.

2. 
   Semantics. If two or more separate ideas are linked together in the source text (which sometime may reveal bad style), a translator can partition them. For example,
   

Мы получили очень краткую информацию о Вашем фонде, поэтому не можем точно определиться с порядком направления вам заявок и направляем вам это письмо. – We have received very brief information about your Fund. Therefore, we do not know exactly the requirements for application. That is why we send you this letter.

Sentence integration can take place because of the close semantic bonds between the sentences. For instance, Это хозяйство занимается выращиванием овощей и зерна, имеет молочное стадо. Этой деятельностью хозяйство занимается длительный период времени. – This farm has been growing vegetables and grains and breeding dairy herd for a long period of time.

3. 
   Genre and style requirements.
   

English-speaking journalists are known to conjoin several ideas in one sentence (which is especially typical of the lead sentence). When translated into Russian, these sentences are usually partitioned: The 23 foreign ministers are due to meet on May 11-12 at the end of the conference when it had been hoped that they would sign an accord allowing surveillance flights over each other’s territory. – 23 министра иностранных дел должны встретиться 11-12 мая, к концу работы конференции. Предполагалось, что они подпишут неофициальное соглашение о взаимных контрольных полетах над территорией своих государств.

Weather forecasts in English newspapers are usually expressed by long sentences. In Russian, the style and genre require short sentences, with the loss of expressiveness typical of an English forecast. For example,

Mist and coastal fog patches over Scotland will also thin to offer a bright start, but with more general clouds, and occasional rain will arrive from the west by late morning. – Туман на побережье Шотландии и морось рассеются. Ожидается солнечный день, временами облачно. К полудню на западе возможны кратковременные дожди.