Учебник Кобрина. Грамматика. Синтаксис.1999. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических институтов и университетов по специальности 2103 "Иностранные языки". Спб., Союз, 1999. 496 с
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THE CONJUNCTS§ 253. Alongside conjunctions there is a numerous group of conjuncts. They are words or phrases which like conjunctions are used to link clauses, sentences and sometimes single words. Conjuncts are mainly derived from adverbs: further, moreover, again, besides, however, now, next, then, yet, still, though*, nevertheless, notwithstanding, otherwise, else, therefore, thus, accordingly. * Though as conjunct differs from the conjunction though: it in characterized by its non-fixed position and by its combinability with other conjunctions (but though). Three of them originated from particles: also, too, only; others are phrases: on the contrary, at the same time, for all that, etc. Many of conjuncts, unlike conjunctions, are less fixed as to their position and often occur in the middle of the sentence as a parenthesis. Conjuncts express more specific relations than conjunctions. Those expressing a copulative connection may be divided into several subgroups. 1. Enumerative: first, second, etc., firstly, secondly, etc., next, then, last, lastly, finally, in the first place, in the second place, etc. First he bought a reading lamp, then pens and books. 2. Additive. Most of these suggest a reinforcement of what has already been said before: again, also, further, furthermore, more, moreover, above all, etc. Her husband was told that he was too old to work. More, he was discharged with no pension. 3. Equative, suggesting similarity in characterization or content: equally, likewise, too, also, similarly, in the same way. The boy was forbidden to go out. Younger children likewise stayed at home. 4. Summative: then, thus, all in all, to sum up, then, etc. 5. Explanatory: namely, in other words, for example (e.g.), for instance, that is (i.e.), viz., to wit, say. 6. Reformulatory: rather, better, in other words. 7. Transitional, denoting temporal transition or indicating a continuation of the narration: meantime, meanwhile, in the meantime, in the meanwhile, now, by the way, by the by. There is such a comic dignity about cats... Now there is nothing haughty about a dog. Conjuncts do not express disjunctive connection. Adversative conjuncts may be divided into the following subgroups: 1. Concessive: however, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, only, still, though, yet, in any case, at any rate, for all that, at the same time, all the same. Her voice still gave charm to her most commonplace remarks, yet it was different from the voice he remembered. Such an answer would have satisfied any one; it had no effect at all, though, on this shameless creature. He was received with respect. Nevertheless he felt awkward. 2. Antithetic: instead, oppositely, on the contrary, on the one hand... on the other hand, etc. He could ask anyone about the house, instead he sulkily went from one house to the other. 3. Inferential: else, otherwise, in that case, etc. The man evidently suspected something, else he wouldn't have asked me all these questions. Consecutive conjuncts are not divided into subgroups. They form one indivisible group: accordingly, consequently, hence, therefore, then, thus, as a result. She liked to be alone, hence she hated Sundays when everybody was at home. Conjuncts often combine with conjunctions: and so, but then, but though, or else, or again, and besides, and still, and yet, but still, but yet, and nevertheless, but nevertheless,because otherwise, etc. THE PARTICLE§ 254. The particle is a part of speech the meaning of which is difficult to define. It either emphasizes or limits the meaning of another word, or phrase, or clause. Particles are invariable and have no syntactical function in the sentence. They form a whole with the part of the sentence (a word or a phrase) they refer to. Particles may combine with any part of speech. Don’t worry – that’s justAunt Fanny practising her balancing act. - John is very proud of his daughter. - I should just think so. Isn’t that just beautiful? She lives just round the corner. I said just what I thought. Just as we thought the sun would sink, it grew still redder. Particles generally stand before the word they refer to but they may also follow it. This book is for advanced students only. According to their meaning particles fall into six groups. 1. Intensifying particles: just, even, yet, still, all, simply. They emphasize the meaning of the word (or phrase, or clause) they refer to or give special prominence to the notion expressed by it. The skirt comes just below my knees. They even offered him higher wages. Maggie felt all the safer for that. These days we’re working with still greater efficiency. We had yet another discussion. The particles all, still, yet, mostly intensify the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs. Play yet more softly. 2. Limiting particles: only, merely, solely, but, alone. They single out the word or phrase they refer to or limit the idea (notion) expressed by them. I only wanted to ask you the time. Man cannot live on bread alone. Time alone will show who was right. She is still but a child, she wants to play. Mr. Green merely hinted at the possibility. Just, merely, simply can be used at the beginning of imperative sentences. You don’t have to be present. Just (merely, simply) send a letter of explanation. 3. Specifying particles: right, exactly, precisely, just. They make the meaning of the word or phrase they refer to more precise. Draw a circle right in the middle of the map (точно, прямо по середине). We werejust about to start (как раз собирались ...). They arrived precisely at ten (ровно, точно в десять). The room looks exactly as it did when I was here last year (точно так, как). What exactly do you mean (что именно ...)? 4. The additive particle else. It combines only with indefinite, interrogative and negative pronouns and interrogative adverbs. It shows that the word it refers to denotes something additional to what has already been mentioned: Something else, nobody else, what else, where else. 5. The negative particle not. Not a word was said about it. Not saying anything was a bad idea. Not everyone likes this book. Do you want to go? - Not me! 6. Connecting particles: also, too, which may function as conjuncts (see § 253 on conjuncts). Were you at the film? - I was also there. I went there too. Won’t you come too? Traditionally particles were classed with adverbs with which some are homonymous: just, simply, yet, still, exactly, precisely, right, too, barely, etc. She is old too (particle). She is too old (adverb). He’s just the man I’m looking for (particle). He has just arrived (adverb). Other particles are homonymous with adjectives (only, even), conjunctions (but), pronouns (all), statives (alone). Only a doctor can do that (particle). She is the only person for the job (adjective). |