Учебник Кобрина. Грамматика. Синтаксис.1999. Учебное пособие для студентов педагогических институтов и университетов по специальности 2103 "Иностранные языки". Спб., Союз, 1999. 496 с
 Скачать 3.61 Mb.
|
THE CONJUNCTIONA conjunction is a function word indicating the connection between two notional words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. Morphological composition§ 250. According to their morphological structure conjunctions fall into the following types: 1. Simple conjunctions: and, or, but, till, after, that, so, where, when. 2. Derived conjunctions; until, unless, seeing, supposing, provided. 3. Compound conjunctions: whereas, wherever. 4. Composite conjunctions: as well as, in case, for fear, on condition that, on the ground that, as long as, etc. Several conjunctions form correlative pairs, though strictly speaking the first element is not a conjunction: both ... and, either ... or, neither ... nor, not only ... but (also), whether ...or. Semantic characteristics§ 251. Unlike prepositions, most conjunctions usually retain their specific meaning, No one was pleased when he came. No one would be pleased if he came. No one was pleased because he came. No one was pleased though he came. Exceptions are those conjunctions which may be used in more than one function (that, if, whether, as). Of these the conjunction that possesses the most vague semantic content. According to their meaning (or rather the semantic relation they express) all conjunctions fall into two types: coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions express copulative, disjunctive, adversative and causative-consecutive connections. These four main types of coordinative connection allow of different shades of meaning,* depending on the context. Thus copulative conjunctions (and, nor, as well as, both ... and) denote not only simple addition, but sometimes express opposition, explanation, consequence. Nor expresses copulative connection and negative meaning at the same time, it very often correlates with negation in the preceding clause. * See also the paragraph on conjuncts which are more specialized connectors, expressing a more specific connection. He didn't doubt it for a moment, nor had he any fears about the possible turn of the events. Note 1: The coordinating conjunction and may be used in a somewhat different function if it joins the same nouns; the effect may be to suggest that different types of persons or objects should be distinguished: There are teachers and teachers. (There are good and bad teachers.) If the noun is repeated more than once, the effect is to suggest a large number: There were faces and faces and faces all around him. The repetition of verbs produces an effect of continuous action or of increase in degree: He talked and talked and talked. Note 2: If the pronouns you and I, or their case forms are joined by the conjunction and, conventions of politeness require that you should always come first: you and I; you or me; you and they; you and them. The disjunctive conjunctions or, otherwise denote a choice between two alternatives. I’ll call on you on Saturday or on Sunday. Did it matter where he went, what he did, or when he did it? The adversative conjunctions but, not that denote contrast or contradiction. He was tall but did not look it because of his broad shoulders. They were silent, but there was no resentment on their faces. There is only one causal conjunction for, which denotes reason or cause, and one resultative conjunction so. He was never in the know of things, for nobody told him anything. It was Saturday, so they were back from school early. Combinability of conjunctions and their functions§ 252. Coordinating conjunctions connect homogeneous parts of a simple sentence (words, phrases), clauses of equal rank in a composite sentence or independent sentences. Some of them can only join coordinated clauses (so, for), others only homogeneous parts of simple sentences (both ... and), others are used to join both clauses and homogeneous parts of the sentence (and, but, or, either ... or, nor, not only ... but also, etc.). Coordinating conjunctions always stand between the elements they join. The most common coordinating conjunction is and: Slowly and painfully he worked through the first volume. He spoke for the first motion and against the second motion. She moved quickly and with grace. I approached the girl who stood in the corner and who looked so shy. Subordinating conjunctions join subordinate clauses to main clauses, although some of them may join a word or a phrase within a simple sentence. They are positionally less fixed than coordinating conjunctions and need not necessarily be between the elements they join, but may precede both the subordinate and the main clauses. Conjunctions which usually join subject, predicative, object attributive and appositive clauses (that, whether, if) are very vague in their meaning and may therefore be used to join clauses of different syntactic value. Other conjunctions retain their lexical meaning. That the man didn’t call the police surprised nobody. Somehow I felt that his feelings had changed. Conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses are conjunctions of place: where, wherever, whence, wherein. Wherever he turned, he saw flowers. time: as, as soon as, as long as, when, whenever, while, now that, since, till, until, after, before, while, the moment, the time, the instant, directly, instantly, etc. When I leave town I never tell my people about it. What happened after I left you? I wouldn’t worry as long as I am not bothered. She was feeling very cheerful as they walked from the station. reason or cause: as, because, since, seeing, so ... that, lest, considering. His work was of vital importance to him, since all his life was devoted to it. One day, because the days were so short, he decided to give up algebra and geometry. As she had never heard of such stories, she was puzzled at first. condition: if, unless, in case, provided, supposing (that), suppose (that), on condition (that). If you tell this to anybody I’ll never forgive you. Tom simply could not work unless all the conditions were to his liking. Vagabonds may get a bed there for a week, provided their papers are in order. purpose: lest, that, in order that, so that, for fear that, so as, so. They made me hide so that the soldier should not see me. He wanted to be great in the world's eyes in order that the woman he loved should be proud of him. He rose gently to his feet lest he should disturb her. consequence: that, so that. The box was so heavy that I could not lift it. manner and comparison: as, the way, as ... as, not so ... as, than, as if, as though. And do you know why she carries herself the way she does? As quickly as he could he set forth. He told him this as though his discovery was his own fault. concession: though, although, as, that, even if, whether ... or. Though they were so poor, Christine and Andrew knew happiness. Most subordinating conjunctions introduce more than one kind of clause. For instance that may introduce subject clauses, predicative clauses, object clauses, appositive clauses, adverbial clauses of purpose and consequence. The conjunction if may introduce subject, object, predicative, appositive, and conditional clauses. The conjunction whether can introduce subject, predicative, object and appositive clauses and can also express a disjunctive coordinating connection when used with or. The conjunction as may introduce adverbial clauses of time, cause, concession and comparison. The conjunctions as though, as if may introduce predicative and adverbial clauses of comparison. The subordinating conjunction that is very often omitted: He said that John would come soon. He said John would come soon. He said that John would come soon and that he would take them by car. He said that John would come soon and he would take them by car. Of all subordinating conjunctions only if, though, while and when may be used to link single words and phrases: a pleasant if talkative child; a cosy, though somewhat dark room; a simple, though profound idea; he did it willingly, if sceptically; she moved quickly, though awkwardly; when at home, he never spoke about business. Two conjunctions may be used alongside each other in two cases: 1) if each of them introduces a separate clause, and one of the clauses is inserted into the other: She knew that unless her calculations were all at fault he was not going to go. 2) if both conjunctions are combined to express a complex relation. The butler took his time far more casually, far more naturally, than if Dicky had offered to shake hands with him. His father was a vigorous out-of-door man, who was never happier than when he had a gun or a rod in his hands. |