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A paragraph is a graphical term used to name a group of sentences marked off by indentation at the beginning and a break in the line at the end. But this graphical term has come to mean a distinct portion of a written discourse showing an internal unity. It is a more or less developed set of thoughts. The structure, logical construction, size of it are important for a stylistic analysis, can be very expressing and speakable. The length of a paragraph normally varies from eight to twelve sentences. The longer the paragraph is, the more difficult it is to follow the purport of the writer. The purpose is to grasp the attention, to make the reader see that the thought is deep (in a long p.) or to induce a certain reaction on the part of the reader. This reaction is generally achieved by intentionally grouping the ideas so as to show their interdependence or interrelation. It discloses the writer's manner of depicting the features of the object or phenomenon described. 2. Compositional patterns of syntactical arrangement Syntactical Stylistic Devices Based on Peculiar Syntactical Arrangement include: stylistic inversion, detached constructions, parallel constructions, chiasmus, repetition, suspense, climax, antithesis. Structural syntactical stylistic devices are in special relations with the intonation involved. The more explicitly the structural syntactical relations are expressed, the weaker will be the intonation-pattern of the utterance (to complete disappearance) and vice-versa, the stronger the intonation, the weaker grow the evident syntactical relations (also to complete disappearance). 'Only after dinner did I make up my mind to go there' and '/ made up my mind to go there only after dinner.' When viewing the stylistic functions of different syntactical designs we must take into consideration the following aspects: 1. The juxtaposition of different parts of the utterance. 2. The way the parts are connected with each other. 3. Those based on the peculiar use of colloquial constructions. 4. Those based on the stylistic use of structural meaning. Stylistic Inversion The usual Word-order in English is Subject — Verb (Predicate) — Object (S—P—O). Any other order will change the impact on the reader. Stylistic Inversion is an intended violation of the usual order of the members of the sentence for stylistic purpose. It aims at attaching logical stressor additional emotional colouring to the surface meaning of the sentence. e.g. grammar inversion: No sooner had I looked at him, when he began to cry. SI can be classified according to the following patterns: 1. the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence. Time he has, desire to study he hasn’t. 2. the predicative is placed before the subject or the link-verb. A good student he was. Rude am I in my speech… (Shakespeare). The former is mostly characteristic for colloquial speech, the latter – bookish. 3. the attribute is placed after the word it modifies (postposition of the attribute). With fingers weary and worn… (Thomas Hood) it usually adds solemnity, elevation and melodiousness in prose. 4. the adverbial modifier is placed at the beginning of the sentence. At your feet I fall. Down dropped the breeze (Coleridge). The AM is accented itself here, but it also foregrounds the subject at the last position, which is very emphatic. 5. Both modifier and predicate stand before the subject. Down dropped the breeze (Coleridge). Detached constructions. Detachment is a stylistic device based on singling out a secondary member of the sentence with the help of punctuation (intonation), so that it seems formally inderpendent of the word it refers to. Being formally inderpendent this secondary member acquires a greater degree of significance and is given prominence by intonation. e.g. She was gone. For good. They are detached with the help of commas, dashes or even a full stop: I have to beg you for money. Daily. DC as an SD is a typification of the syntactical peculiarities of colloquial language. Function: to focus the reader’s attention. A variant of DC is parenthesis (вводное слово или предложение) – is a qualifying, explanatory or appositive word, phrase, clause, sentence, or other sequence which interrupts a syntactic construction without otherwise affecting it, having often a characteristic intonation and indicated in writing by commas, brackets or dashes. It gives the utterance an additional nuance of meaning or a tinge of emotional colouring. Parallel construction is a device which may be encountered not so much in the sentence as in the macro-structures dealt with the syntactical whole and the paragraph. Parallelism is more or less complete identity of syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of sentence in close succession. e.g. So long as men can breathe or eyes can see… (Shakespeare) P.c-s are often backed up by the lexical repetition. In this case P acquires additional semantic stylistic value. P.c-s are most frequently used in enumerations, antithesis and in climax, thus consolidating the general effect achieved by these SDs. It carries the idea of semantic equality of the parts, does the emotive function, generates rhythm. Chiasmus (Reversed Parallel Construction) from Greek [cross arrangement] – перекрестный\ реверсированный параллелизм - is based on repetition of syntactical patterns, but it has a reversed order in one of the utterances. I.e.one of the sentences is inverted as compared to that of the second sentence: SPO-OPS. Down dropped the breeze, The sails dropped down. (Coleridge) e.g. The public wants a thing, therefore it is supplied with it, or if it is supplied with a thing, it wants it. (Thackeray). Chiasmus is sometimes achieved by a sudden change from active voice to passive or vice versa. It brings in some new shade of meaning or additional emphasis on the second part. Repetition is reiteration of the same word or phrase with the view of expressiveness. As an SD it fixes the reader’s attention on the key-word of the utterance. It can be of various types: at the beginning - anaphora; at the end – epiphora; the last word of one is repeated at the beginning of the next part – anadiplosis (linking/ reduplication) – Beauty is truth, truth beauty, - that is all ye know on earth… (Keats); at the beginning and at the end of a sentence/paragraph – framing – кольцевой повтор, рамка. It helps to promote the text categories: prospection, retrospection, presupposition, predictability, wholeness, intensifies the utterance, produces the monotony of action, makes the rhythm. The special type of R is called distant rep-n – when the repeated word /phrase occurs not in a close succession, but in some distance from one another. The distance may be a chapter, several chapters and so on. Suspense затягивание, задержка главной мысли - is a compositional device that consists in arranging the utterance in such a way, that the less important, descriptive parts are placed at the beginning, while the main idea is presented in the end of the utterance. The sentences of this type are called periodic. Thus the reader's interest is held up, he is kept in a state of un’certainty and expectation. This device is typical of oratoric style. Suspense and climax sometimes go together. Climax (gradation) кульминация – is an arrangement of sentences or phrases which secures a gradual increase in significance, importance, or emotional tension in the utterance. It’s ascending series of words or utterances in which intensity or significance increases step by step. e. g. Every racing car, every racer, every mechanic, every ice - cream van was also plastered with advertising. C. can be logical, emotional or quantitative. Logical c. is based on the relative importance (objective or subjective) of the component parts looked at from the point of view of the concepts put in them. Emotive C –based on the relative emotional tension produced by words with emotive meaning. Quantitative C is an evident increase in the volume of the corresponding concepts: Little by little, bit by bit, and day by day, and year by year the baron got the worst of some disputed question. (Dickens) It helps to show the relative importance of things as seen by the author, or to impress upon the reader the significance of the things described by suggested comparison, or to depict phenomena dynamically. Anticlimax – the decrease of tension. Antithesis (stylistic opposition) антитеза is a SD based on the author's desire to stress certain qualities of the thing by appointing it to another thing possessing antagonistic features. e. g. They speak like saints and act like devils. The aim is to make ‘contra:st. Enumeration is a SD by which separate things, properties or actions are brought together and form a chain of grammatically and semantically homogeneous parts of the utterance. Sometimes absolutely heterogeneous notions are made homogeneous from the semantic point of view. e. g. She wasn't sure of anything and more, of him, herself, their friends, her work, her future. 3. Particular ways of combining parts of the utterance: Syntactical Stylistic Devices Based on Peculiar Linkage Asyndeton is a deliberate avoidance of conjunctions in constructions in which they would normally used. e.g. He couldn't go abroad alone, the sea upset his liver, he hated hotels. Polysyndeton - is a deliberate usage (overuse) of connectives between the parts of the sentence. It’s mostly identical repetition of conjunctions: used to emphasize simultaneousness of described actions, to disclose the authors subjective attitude towards the characters, to create the rhythmical effect. e. g. The heaviest rain, and snow, and hail, and sleet, could boast of the advantage over him in only one respect. The difference between the Enumeration and P: the first shows things united, the second – isolated. The Gap - sentence - link is a peculiar type of connection, which is not immediately apparent and it requires some effort to grasp the interrelation between the parts of the utterance, i.e. to bridge the semantic gap. It presents two utterances, the second is brought into the focus of the reader's attention. e. g. She and that fellow ought to be the sufferers, and they were in I tally (Galsworthy). It serves to signal the introduction of the inner represented speech; indicates a subjective evaluation of the facts; introduces an effect resulting from a cause which has already had verbal expression, in other words it displays an unexpected coupling of ideas, stirs up in the reader’s mind the suppositions and associations. 4. Syntactical Stylistic Devices Based on Peculiar Use of Colloquial Constructions Ellipsis, break in the narrative, represented speech. Ellipsis - is a deliberate omission of some parts of the sentence for the purpose of shorter and more emphatic presentation of an emotionally coloured speech. It is the omission of a word necessary for the complete syntactical construction of a sentence, but not necessary for understanding The stylistic function of ellipsis is to speed up the tempo, to imitate the colloquial language, to connect its structure. e. g. You feel all right? Anything wrong or what? Oh, finally! Go! Stop it! Nor more! Aposiopesis (Break - in - the narrative). Sudden break in the narration has the function to convey the strong emotions, to reveal agitated state of the speaker, - he can’t proceed his speech. e. g. You just come home or I’ll... The difference between ellipsis and break is that in ellipsis the speaker deliberately stops to let the listener guess, and in the break- he really or feigningly can’t speak. Question in the narrative. Changes the real nature of a question and turns it into a stylistic device. A question in the narrative is asked and answered by one and the same person, usually the author. It becomes akin to a parenthetical statement with strong emotional implications. e. g. For what is left the poet here? For Greeks a blush - for Greece a tear. (Byron “Don Juan”) Unlike rhetorical questions it does not contain statements. Question in the narrative is very often used in oratory. This is explained by one of the leading features of oratorical style - to induce the desired reaction to the content of the speech. There are 3 ways of reproducing character's speech.1) direct speech; 2) indirect speech (reported speech) 3) represented speech – introduction of the voice of the heroes in author’s speech.. Represented speech (non-personal direct speech). There is also a device which coveys to the reader the unuttered or inner speech of the character, his thoughts and feelings. This device is also termed represented speech. To distinguish between the two varieties of represented speech we call the representation of the actual utterance through the author's language "uttered represented speech", and the representation of the thoughts and feelings of the character “unuttered or inner represented speech”. Peculiarities: 1) the absence of quotation marks 2) the usage of the 3rd person sg- mostly 3) the specific choice of vocabulary 4) question and exclamatory marks in narrative 5) the great degree of emotional tension 6) the usage of interjections 5. Syntactical Stylistic Devices Based on Stylistic Use of Structural Meaning Rhetorical question is a statement in a form of a question, that expects no answer. It is asked in order to make a statement rather than to get a reply. They are frequently used in dramatic situation and in publicistic style. e. g. What was the good of discontented people who fitted in nowhere? Litotes - is a use of two negative notions for creating a positive one. Its function is to convey doubts of the speaker concerning the exact characteristics of the object or a feeling, irony, restraint. e.g. It's not a bad thing - It's a good thing. e.g. He is no coward. He is a brave man. e.g. He was not without taste. e.g. He is no fool. Hometask: 1. Galperin pp. 191-246 2. Арнольд стр. 217-269 1. Транспозиция синтаксических структур 2. Экспрессивность отрицания. 3. Синтаксическая конвергенция 4. Актуальное членение предложения. План рассказчика и план персонажа. 3. Kucharenko pp. 66-108 ex.2, p.73-5; ex.3, p.77-5; ex.4, p. 80-5, ex. 5, p.83-5; ex., p.103-5-written 3. МАТЕРИАЛЫ ДЛЯ САМОСТОЯТЕЛЬНОЙ РАБОТЫ Text 1 And then he remembered that he did not love Gloria. He could not love a common thief. She was a common thief, too. You could see that in her face. There was something in her face, some unconventional thing along with the rest of her beauty, her mouth and eyes and nose - somewhere around the eyes, perhaps, or was it the mouth? - she did not have the conventional look. Emily, yes, Emily had it. He could look at Emily dispassionately, impersonally, as though he did not know her - objectively? wasn't it called? He could look at her and see how much she looked like dozens of girls who had been born and brought up as she had been. You saw them at the theatres, at the best cabarets and speakeasies, at the good clubs on Long Island-and then you saw the same girls, the same women, dressed the same, differing only in the accent of their speech, at clubs in other cities, at horse shows and football games and dances, at Junior League conventions. Emily, he decided after eighteen years of marriage, was a type. And he knew why she was a type, or he knew the thing that made the difference in the look of a girl like Gloria. Gloria led a certain kind of life, a sordid life; drinking and sleeping with men and God knows what all, and had seen more of "life" than Emily ever possibly would see. Whereas Emily had been brought up a certain way, always accustomed to money and the good ways of spending it. In other words, all her life Emily had been looking at nice things, nice houses, cars, pictures, grounds, clothes, people. Things that were easy to look at, and people that were easy to look at: with healthy complexions and good teeth, people who had had pasturized milk to drink and proper food all their lives from the time they were infants; people who lived in houses that were kept clean, and painted when paint was needed, who took care of their minds, were taken care of: and they got the look that Emily and girls-women like her had. Whereas Gloria - well, take for instance the people she was with the night he saw her two nights ago, the first night he went out with her. The man that liked to eat, for instance. Where did he come from? He might have come from the Ghetto. Ligget happened to know that there were places in the slums where eighty families would use the same outside toilet. A little thing, but imagine what it must look like! Imagine having spent your formative years living like, well, somewhat the way you lived in the Army. Imagine what effect that would have on your mind. And of course a thing like that didn't only affect your mind: it showed in your face, absolutely. Not that it was so obvious in Gloria's case. She had good teeth and a good complexion and a healthy body but there was something wrong somewhere. She had not gone to the very best schools, for instance. A little thing perhaps, but important. Text 2 Tom told them of another famous escaped slavewoman. “She named Harriet Tubman. Ain’t no tellin’ how many times she come back South an' led out different whole bunches o' folks like us to freedom up Nawth on sump'n dey's callin' de "Unnergroun' Rairoad”. Fac', she done it so much dey claims by now white folks got out forty thousand dollars' worth o' rewards fo' her, alive or dead." "Lawd have mercy, wouldn't o' thought white folks pay dat much to catch no nigger in de worl’!" said Sister Sarah. He told them that in a far-distant state called California, two white men were said to have been building a sawmill when they discovered an unbelievable wealth of gold in the ground, and thousands of people were said to be rushing in in wagons, on mules, even afoot to reach the place where it was claimed that gold could be dug up by the shovelful. He said finally that in the North great debates on the subject of slavery were being held between two white men named Stephen Douglas and Abraham Lincoln. "Which one 'em for de niggers?" asked Gran'mammy Kizzy. Well, soun' like de Massa Lincoln, leas'ways de bes' I can tell," said Tom. "Well, praise de Lawd an' give Mm stren'th" said Kizzy. Sucking his teeth, Chicken George got up patting his ample belly and turned to Tom. "Looka here, boy, why'n't you'n me stretch our legs, walk off some dat meal?" "Yassuh, Pappy," Tom almost stammered, scarcely able to conceal his amazement and trying to act casual. The women, who were no less startled, exchanged quizzical, significant glances when Chicken George and Tom set off together down the road. Sister Sarah exclaimed softly, "Lawd, y'all realize dat boy done growed nigh as his daddy!" James and Lewis stared after their father and older brother nearly sick with envy, but they knew better than to invite themselves along. But the two younger girls, L'il Kizzy and Mary, couldn't resist leaping up and happily starting to hop-skip along eight or ten steps behind them. Without even looking back at them, Chicken George ordered, "Git on back younder an' he'p y'all’s mammy wid dem dishes'." "Aw, Pappy," they whined in unison. "Git, done tol’ you." Half turning around his eyes loving his little sisters, Tom chided them gently, "Ain't y'all hear Pappy? We see you later on." Text 3 Constitution of the United States Article. III. Section. 1. The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office. Section. 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority; – to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls; – to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction; – to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party; – to Controversies between two or more States, between a State and Citizens of another State, between Citizens of different States, – between Citizens of the same State сlaiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make. The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment; shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. Section. 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. Text 4 CRUISE S.S. Glory оf Greece Darling, Well, the first day it was rough and I got uр and felt odd in the bath and the soap wouldn’t work оn account of salt water уоu see and саmе into breakfast and there was а corking young man who said we are the only ones down mау I sit here and it was going beautifully and hе had steak and onions but it was nо good I had to go back to bed just when hе was saying there was nothing hе admired so muсh about а girl as her being а good sailor goodness how sad. The thing is not to hаvе а bath and to bе very slow in аll movements. So next day it was Naples and we saw some Bertie churches and then that bit that got blown uр in an earthquake and а poor dog killed they hаvе а plaster cast of him goodness how sad. Рара and Bertie saw some pictures we weren't allowed to see and Вill drew thеm for mе afterwards and Miss Р. tried to look too. I haven't told уоu about Вill and Miss Р. have I? Well, Вill is rather old but сlеаn looking and I don't suppose his very old not rеаllу I mean and he's had а very disillusionary life оn account of his wife who hе says I wont say а word against but she gave him the raspberry with а foreigner and that makes mm hate foreigners. Miss Р. is called Miss Phillips and is lousy she wears а yachting сар and is а bitch. And the way she makes uр to the second officer is nо ones business and its clear to the meanest intelligence hе hates her but its part of the rules that аll the sailors have to pretend to fancy the passengers. Who else is there? Well а lot of old ones. Рара is hаving а walk with one called Lady Muriel something or other who knew uncle Ned. And there is а honeymoon соuрlе very embarrassing. And а clergyman and а lоvеlу pansy with а camera and white suit and so Bertie sends his lоvе too. Мum bought а shawl and an animal made of lаvа. POST-CARD This is а picture of Taormina. Мum bought а shawl here. V. funny because Miss Р. got left as shed made chums only with second officer and hе wasnt allowed ashore so when it саmе to getting into cars Miss Р. had to pack in with а family from the industrial north. Text 5 Long Day's Journey into Night |