Учебнометодическое пособие Петрозаводск 2010 ббк 81. 2Англ удк 811. 11 Г 613 Рецензенты
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2) Answer the questions on the text: What was the major problem of developing nations after becoming independent? What was the result of this situation? What was the way out? Was it productive? 3) Explain what these terms mean: nepotism, tribalism, corruption. 4) Make a brief plan of the text. 5.9 CLASSICAL PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION 1) Name the paragraphs which give information on classical principles of public administration. (1) The study of public administration, unlike some social sciences, was often pragmatic throughout the 20th century, that is why its theory wasn’t well developed. The interest towards this study appeared only in the mid-20th century. It was connected with the theory of bureaucracy by German sociologist Max Weber. (2) A prominent principle of public administration has been economy and efficiency, that is, the provision of public services at the minimum cost. This has usually been the stated objective of administrative reform. Despite growing concern about other kinds of values, such as responsiveness to public needs, justice and equal treatment, and citizen involvement in government decisions, efficiency continues to be a major goal. (3) In its concern with efficiency and improvement, public administration has focused frequently on questions of formal organization. It is generally believed that administrative ills can be at least partly corrected by reorganization. (4) Many organizational principles originated with the military, a few from private business. They include, for example: 1) organizing departments, ministries, and agencies on the basis of common or closely related purposes, 2) grouping similar activities together, 3) equating responsibility with authority, 4) ensuring unity of command (only one supervisor for each group of employees), 5) limiting the number of subordinates reporting to a single supervisor, 6) differentiating end-purpose activities from consultative activities, 7) employing the principle of management by exception (only the unusual problem or case is brought to the top), and 8) having a clear-cut chain of command downward and of responsibility upward. (5) Some critics claim that these principles of public administration are useful only as rough criteria for given organizational situations. They believe that organizational problems differ and the principles applied to various situations should also differ. Nonetheless, these principles continue to carry force. (6) Public administration has also laid stress upon personnel. In most countries administrative reform has involved civil service reform. Historically, the direction has been toward “meritocracy” – the best individual for each job, competitive examinations for entry, and selection and promotion on the basis of merit. Attention has increasingly been given to factors other than intellectual merit, including personal attitudes, incentives, personality, personal relationships, and collective bargaining. (7) In addition, the budget has developed as a principal tool in planning future programs, deciding priorities, managing current programs, linking executive with legislature, and developing control and accountability. The contest for control over budgets, particularly in the Western world, began centuries ago and at times was the main relationship between monarchs and their subjects. The modern executive budget system in which the executive recommends, the legislature appropriates, and the executive oversees expenditures originated in 19th century Britain. In the United States during the 20th century, the budget became the principal vehicle for legislative surveillance of administration, executive control of departments, and departmental control of subordinate programs. It has a similar role in many of the developing countries of the world. 2) Find a definition to the term “meritocracy.” 3) Pick out the facts from the text that explain why the science of public administration doesn’t have a thorough theory. 4) Read out the facts that list the necessary qualities of personnel. 5) Name the facts that explain why budget is the principal tool of public administration. 5.10 MODERN PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION 1) Make a list of modern principles of public administration covered by this text. The classical approach to public administration described above probably reached its fullest development in the United States during the 1930s. Since that time, it has also become standard doctrine in many countries through educational and training programs, technical assistance, and the work of international organizations. However, the governments of some countries could not agree with some of its elements. Since that time the study of public administration has greatly developed. It has also become somewhat confused as a result of certain inconsistencies in approach. The orthodox doctrine rested on the idea that administration was simply the implementation of public policies determined by others. According to this view, administrators should seek maximum efficiency but should be otherwise neutral about values and goals. However, during the Great Depression of the 1930s, and even more so during World War II, it became evident that many new policies originated within the administration, that policy and value judgments were implicit in most significant administrative decisions, that many administrative officials worked on nothing except policy, and that, insofar as public policies were controversial, such work inevitably involved administrators in politics. The supposed independence of administration from policy and politics seemed to be illusory. Thus, since the 1930s there has been increasing concern with policy formation and the development of techniques to improve policy decisions. It is evident now that administration cannot be value-free and neutral. But no fully satisfactory substitute has been offered yet. The modern preoccupations are to ensure responsible and responsive policy decisions made by career administrators, and to coordinate their work with the policies of politically elected or appointive officials. The Great Depression was combated with governmental efforts. At that time new informational devices were introduced, including national income accounting and the examination of gross national product as a major index of economic health. The applied techniques of fiscal and monetary policy have become established specializations of public administration. Economists occupy key posts in the administrations of most nations, and many other administrators must have at least elementary knowledge of the economic effects of government operations. France, Sweden, other Scandinavian nations, Great Britain, and the United States were among the leaders in developing economic planning techniques. Such planning has become a dominating concern of public administration in many of the developing countries. Quantitative economic measurement is useful, but the value of human life, of freedom from sickness and pain, of safety on the streets, of clean air, and of opportunity for achievement are hardly measurable in monetary terms. Public administration has thus increasingly concerned itself with developing better social quantitative and qualitative indicators – that is, better indexes of the effects of public programs and new techniques of social analysis. 2) State the main idea of the text. 3) Write an annotation to the texts “Classical Principles of Public Administration” and “Modern Principles of Public Administration.” 5.11 IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN RELATIONS 1) Read the title of the text and say whether it is connected with the previous and the following texts. In the 1930s the Hawthorne research, involving the workers and management of an industrial plant near Chicago, the USA, proved the importance of social or informal organization, good communications, individual and group behaviour, and attitudes (as different from aptitudes) to productivity. Awareness of the importance of human relations influenced the conduct of public administration. Many principles of administration (hierarchy, directive leadership, set duties, treatment of employees as impersonal “units” of production, and monetary incentives) were reviewed. By the late 1930s the human relations approach had developed into a concept known as “organization development.” Its primary goal was to change the attitudes, values, and structures of organizations so that they could meet new demands. Trained consultants, usually from outside the organization, interviewed senior and junior staff, and conducted sensitivity training and confrontation meetings. Unlike the earlier rationalistic approach, organization development stressed the identification of personal goals with organizational goals, the “self-actualization” of workers and managers, effective interpersonal communication, and broad participation in decision making. Its direct use within governmental agencies was limited and was not always successful, but it had a considerable indirect influence upon administrators. Another modern movement in public administration was the greater participation of citizens in government. It was stimulated during the 1950s and ’60s by a growing feeling that governments were not responding to the needs of their citizens, particularly of minority groups and the poor. A variety of experiments to involve citizens or their representatives in making governmental decisions was begun in the 1960s. These involved the delegation of decision-making from central to local offices and, at the local level, the sharing of authority with citizen groups. 2) Determine which problems are discussed in the text. 3) Is the text information up-to-date or out-of-date? 4) Support or decline the modern movements in public administration covered in this text. Give your own examples. 5.12 INTERNATIONAL INTEREST IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION 1) Why does the study at the State and Municipal Administration Department attract you? How long have you been studying at this Department? Are you satisfied with the study process? What skills have you gained / lost during your studies? 2) Read out the facts from the text that relate to the title of the text. Until World War II there was relatively little exchange among nations of ideas about public administration. In 1910, however, a professional organization, which eventually became the International Institute of Administrative Sciences (HAS), was established. At first its membership consisted principally of scholars and practitioners of administrative law in the countries of continental Europe. By the late 1980s the HAS had a membership from some 70 countries. Its congresses covered all aspects of the field of public administration. Since World War II international interest in administrative systems has grown, precipitated by the necessity of cooperation during the war, by the formation of international organizations, by the occupation of conquered nations and the administration of economic recovery programs for Europe and the Far East, and by aid programs for developing countries. One by-product of aid programs was a renewed appreciation of how important effective administration is to national development. It also became apparent how parochial and culture-bound styles of public administration often remained within individual countries. Another effect of this international communication and sharing of experiences was the realization that government was no longer merely the keeper of the peace and the provider of basic services. In the postindustrial era government became a principal innovator, a determinant of social and economic priorities, and an entrepreneur on a major scale. On virtually every significant problem – from unemployment to clean air – people asked the government for solutions or assistance. The tasks of planning, organizing, coordinating, managing, and evaluating modern government likewise became impressively important. European universities traditionally produced administrative lawyers for their governments, but legal skills alone were hardly adequate for handling contemporary problems. U.S. universities began graduate programs in the early years of the 20th century, and by the late 1980s there were more than 300 university programs in public administration. Training programs have particularly increased since World War II, many of them with government help. Some are attached to universities. In establishing the Ecole Nationale d’Administration as one of its civil service reforms of 1946-1947, France provided an extensive course for recruits to the higher civil service. In 1969 Britain established a Civil Service College under the new Civil Service Department. In the United States the government established a variety of educational and training programs during the 1960s, including the Federal Executive Institute and the Executive Seminar Centers. Many less-advanced countries have since established centres for the training of public administrators. 3) Say what these numbers refer to: 1910, late 1980s, the early years of the 20th century, 1946—1947, during the 1960s. 4) Make a list of proper names and events relating to the topic “Education in the sphere of public administration.” 5.13 CONDITIONS OF SERVICE 1) Would you read the text further if you were interested in the topic “Civil service”? 2) Name “the signal words” which help the author of the text to introduce a new idea, to develop the idea, to provide the idea with examples, to explain the idea, and to make a conclusion. The forerunners of civil servants had duties but no rights. Later they gathered into professional groups similar to trade unions. They raised the question whether they could strike to improve their conditions of service. Obviously it was necessary to have a recognized system for regulating servants’ conduct and discipline. As for a civil servant’s conduct, he/she should be a loyal, competent, and obedient employee. Ideally, a civil servant should be above any suspicion of partiality and should not let personal sympathies, loyalties, or interests affect the performance of duties. As a general rule, a civil servant is not allowed to engage directly or indirectly in any trade or business. He/she may participate in social or charitable organizations only if they are not connected with official duties. There are always strict limits on a civil servant’s right to lend or borrow money, and they are prohibited from accepting gifts. There are different attitudes about participation of civil servants in political activities. One view is that a civil servant has the same constitutional rights as other citizens and that it is therefore unconstitutional to limit those rights. In France and Germany civil servants can engage in political activities. The opposing view is that, since civil servants are engaged in the unique function of national government, their integrity and loyalty to their political masters might be affected by active participation in political affairs, and public confidence in their impartiality could be shaken. The United Kingdom totally bans its senior civil servants to engage in any form of political activity. Traditionally, governments disliked civil service unions, and in the past servants’ strikes were unlawful. Nevertheless strikes occurred, and governments eventually approved of trade unions. The United Kingdom was the first country to establish negotiating machinery for civil servants in 1917. Many governments also established permanent channels for negotiating such matters as salaries and discipline. 3) Where and how can you use the text information? Which information from the text is redundant? 4) Write an annotation to the text. 5.14 CIVIL SERVICE IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 1) Read the text and say, what these numbers refer to: 1872, 1883, 1978, 1,300, 16%, $71,208, 24. In the United States, the civil service was established in 1872. The Federal Civil Service was defined as “all appointive positions in the executive, judicial, and legislative branches of the Government of the United States, except positions in the uniformed services.” At first, government jobs were held at the pleasure of the President. It meant that a civil servant could be fired at any time. “The spoils system” meant that jobs were used to support the political parties. This was changed slowly by the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883 and subsequent laws. In 1883 the US Civil Service Commission was created. It was created to administer the civil service of the US federal government in response to the assassination of President James Garfield. The law required certain applicants to take the civil service exam in order to be given certain jobs. It also did not allow elected officials and political appointees to fire civil servants. The work of the US Civil Service Commission was mainly restricted to the lower grades of employment. Only in the 1920s the merit system of recruitment was expanded to cover half the posts in the federal service. After that period the commission’s control gradually increased, mainly over the lower, middle, and managerial offices in the federal service. Effective January 1, 1978, the US Civil Service Commission was reorganized into the Office of Personnel Management, the Federal Labor Relations Authority, and the U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board. The first office primarily provides management guidance to the various agencies of the executive branch and issues regulations that control federal human resources. The second authority oversees the rights of federal employees to form collective bargaining unions. The third board conducts studies of the federal civil service and mainly hears the appeals of federal employees who are disciplined or otherwise separated from their positions. By 1909, almost two-thirds of the U.S. federal work force was appointed based on merit, that is, qualifications measured by tests. Certain senior civil service positions, including some heads of diplomatic missions and executive agencies are, however, filled by political appointees. Under the Hatch Act of 1939, civil servants are not allowed to engage in political activities while performing their duties. The U.S. civil service includes the Competitive service and the Excepted service. The majority of civil service appointments in the U.S. are made under the Competitive Service, but certain categories in the Diplomatic Service, the FBI, and other National Security positions are made under the Excepted Service. U.S. state and local government entities often have competitive civil service systems that are modeled on the national system, in varying degrees. Employees in the US civil services work under one of the independent agencies or one of the 15 executive departments. In addition to departments, there is a number of staff organizations grouped into the Executive Office of the President (the White House staff, the National Security Council, the Office of Management and Budget, and others). There are also independent agencies such as the United States Postal Service, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Central Intelligence Agency, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the United States Agency for International Development. In addition, there are government-owned corporations such as the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and the National Railroad Passenger Corporation. The Federal Government is the nation’s single largest employer. There are over 1,300 federal government agencies. Although most federal agencies are based in the Washington, D.C. region, only about 16% of the federal government workforce is employed in this region. Many people believe that civil service is among the most secure work environments, that’s why jobs in government are highly sought after. Excellent retirement and health benefits are what attract many people to these jobs. The average federal worker’s pay was $71,208 compared with $40,331 in the private sector. 19% of federal employees earned salaries of $100,000 or more in 2009. Basic pay rates for Senior Executive Service, i.e. those above GS-15, ranged from $140,000 to $190,000, excluding the cost of living adjustments. Over the last several years, the Federal government has made it relatively simple to search for a job within their system. The Office of Personnel Management developed USAJOBS. USAJOBS is available 24 hours a day, seven days a week, and consists of a website and an automated telephone system. Job seekers can view or listen to job vacancies, download or request applications and other forms, and get the facts about Federal employment. Unfortunately, there isn’t an official centralized location like this for finding state and local jobs all listed in one place. However, such information can be found on special websites. One can also check the blue pages of a telephone book to see if there is a civil service commission or a personnel or human resources department listed. |