Учебнометодическое пособие Петрозаводск 2010 ббк 81. 2Англ удк 811. 11 Г 613 Рецензенты
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2) Read the words correctly: a century, machinery, feudal, a sovereign, a corps of civil servants, a crown, throughout. The foundations of modern public administration in Europe were laid in Prussia in the late 17th and 18th centuries. A rigidly centralized government was considered to be a means of ensuring stability and furthering dynastic objective by the kings of Prussia. Their principal aim was to suppress the autonomy of the cities and to eliminate the feudal privileges of the aristocracy. Civil servants were therefore appointed by the central government to administer the provinces, where the management of crown lands and the organization of the military system were combined in a “Kriegs-und-Domänen-Kammer” (“Office of War and Crown Lands”). The “Steuerräte” (“tax collectors”) were subordinate to these offices. They controlled the administration of the municipalities and communes. These officials were all appointed by the central government and were responsible to it. At the apex of the new machinery of government was the sovereign. This centralized system was strengthened by creating a special corps of civil servants. In the beginning these civil servants – in a real sense servants of the Crown – were sent out from Berlin to deal with such purely military matters as recruiting, billeting, and victualling the troops, but in the course of time they extended their supervision to civil matters as well. By 1713 there were clearly recognizable administrative units dealing in civil affairs and staffed by crown civil servants. Special ordinances in 1722 and 1748 regulated recruitment to the civil service. Senior officials proposed to the king the names of candidates suitable for appointment to the higher posts. The adjutant general proposed noncommissioned officers suitable for subordinate administrative posts. Further steps were taken throughout the 18th century to regularize the system of recruitment, promotion, and internal organization. All of these matters were brought together in a single General Code promulgated in 1794. The merit system of appointment covered all types of posts, and the general principle was that “special laws and instructions determine the appointing authority to different civil service rank, their qualifications, and the preliminary examinations required from different branches and different ranks.” To enter the higher civil service a candidate needed a university degree in cameralistics, which included the science of public finance, the study of administrative law, police administration, estate management, and agricultural economics. After the degree course, candidates for the higher civil service spent a further period of supervised practical training in various branches of the administration. At the end of the practical training they had more oral and written examinations. The basic principles of modern civil services are to be found in this General Code. 3) Simplify the text in your own words. 5.4 DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN FRANCE 1) Read this text and do task 1 for text 5.3. (1) A fundamental change in the status of the civil servant came with the French Revolution of 1789. The fall of the ancient regime and the creation of a republic meant that the civil servant was no longer the servant of the king but rather of the state – even though rule by a king or emperor was soon brought back and continued in France for nearly another century. The civil servant became an instrument of public power, not the agent of a person. This led to the growth of public law concerned with the organization, duties, and rights of “the public power,” of which civil servants were the principal component. Thus, administrative law was added to the ordered structure of the Prussian bureaucracy. (2) This bureaucratization was greatly fostered by Napoleon I, who built up a new civil service marked not only by some of the features of military organization but also by the principles of rationality, logic, and universality that were the inheritance of the Enlightenment. There was a clear chain of command and a firmly established hierarchy of officials, with duties clearly divided between authorities. Authority was depersonalized and went to the office and not to the official – although Napoleon insisted that each official should be responsible for action taken in the name of his office. (3) France was divided into new territorial units: departements, arrondissements, and communes. In each of these, state civil servants had a general responsibility for maintaining public order, health, and morality. They were all linked in a chain to the national Ministry of the Interior. A special school, the Ecole Polytechnique, was set up to provide the state with technical specialists in both the military and the civil fields – particularly in general administration. In the field of general administration, the Conseil d’Etat (“Council of State”), descended from the old Conseil du Roi (“Council of the King”), imposed an intellectual and judicial authority over the rest of the civil service. As the first major European administrative court, it became the creator of a new type of administrative jurisprudence. The prestige of the new French administrative organization and the logical arrangement of its internal structure prompted many other European countries to copy its principal features. And the expansion of the French Empire spread many of its features across the world. (4) However, in France under the Third Republic (1870-1940), considerable political interference in some branches of the civil service developed. But the work of the civil services was not always efficient because of difficult bureaucratic practices and because of unenergetic personnel. The system was reformed in 1946. It involved changing the administrative structure of the central government, centralizing personnel selection, creating a special ministry for civil service affairs, and setting up a special school, the Ecole National d’Administration. 2) Name the paragraphs which give information on: a) a new division of the country into territorial units b) the principles of the new civil service system in France c) the often inefficient work of French civil service d) a well-known French educational institution for civil servants e) the change in the role of French civil servants f) reforms in French civil service g) the appearance of administrative law in France h) the input of Napoleon I into the development of French civil service i) the imitation of many features of French civil service by other European countries. 3) Write an annotation to the text. 5.5 DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 1) Read this text and do task 1 for text 5.3. Great Britain attempted to create efficient administrative machinery because of its commitment to govern India and to avoid periodic scandals there. In 1764, a new code of practice was introduced. It prohibited British servants of the East India Company from trading or from accepting gifts from native traders in India. Simultaneously the salaries of civil servants were substantially increased, promotion by seniority was introduced, and the higher echelons of administration were reorganized. Recruitment to civil service was carried on by the company in London. After 1813 entrants to the civil service had to study the history, language, and laws of India for four terms at Haileybury College, England, and to obtain a certificate of good conduct before taking up their posts. New rules of 1833 said that there should be four candidates for each vacancy and that they had to compete with one another in a special examination. However, there was further criticism of the way India was run, and in 1853 another legislative reform of the administration was proposed. The experience of the Indian Civil Service influenced the foundation of the modern civil service in the United Kingdom. A report on the organization of the Permanent Civil Service in Britain was published in 1854. The principal author of that report, Sir Charles Trevelyan, had been searching out corruption in the Indian Civil Service during 14 years of service there. The report of 1854 recommended the abolition of patronage and recruitment by open competitive examination. It further recommended:
The Civil Service Commission was established in 1855, and during the next 30 years patronage was gradually eliminated. The two original classes (intellectual and routine) were increased to four, and some specialized branches were combined into the Scientific Civil Service. The new civil service managed to attract to its senior levels highly capable, discreet, and self-effacing university graduates. Graduates of Oxford and Cambridge became – and remain to the present – especially prominent in the ranks of senior civil servants in Britain. 2) Explain what these proper names denote: Sir Charles Trevelyan, Haileybury College, the East India Company, Oxford and Cambridge. 3) Say what these dates and numerals refer to: 1764, four candidates, 1854, during 14 years of service, 1855, four classes. 4) Make a detailed plan of the text. 5.6 DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 1) Read this text and do task 1 for text 5.3. 2) Answer the questions on the text: a) What are the main principles of American civil service? b) Do you agree with the quote by the US President Jackson? c) What is the “spoils system” and what are its consequences? d) In what way is civil service in the USA different from that of the UK? From the early days of the federation two principles in civil service were important. First, there was antipathy to the notion “a cadre of permanent civil servants.” President Jackson clearly dismissed this notion of “a highly professional caste” when he said in 1829 that “the duties of all public officers are ... so plain and simple that men of intelligence may readily qualify themselves for their performance. As a consequence,” he said, “I cannot but believe that more is lost by the long continuance of men in office than is generally to be gained by their experience. No one man has any more intrinsic right to official station than another.” The second principle was that public office should be elective. It followed more or less automatically. But because this principle could not be practically applied to the subordinate levels of administration, there developed the “spoils system.” In it, a public office became a perquisite of political victory, and was widely used to reward political support. This system was influenced by persistent, blatant, and ultimately unacceptable degrees of inefficiency, corruption, and partisanship. These particular faults were strongly felt after the Civil War (1861-1865), during the period of rapid economic and social development. 5.7 DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN THE EAST 1) Read this text and do task 1 for text 5.3. China. The People’s Republic of China illustrates the conflict between revolutionary bureaucracy and the need to construct strong administrative machinery in order to achieve revolutionary goals. China’s long tradition of bureaucracy remained important even after the Communist Party came to power in 1949. Within a decade, the importance of the administration resulted in a gap between the elite and the masses. It also resulted in excessive stratification among the ruling bureaucrats, or cadres, themselves. There was a distinction between “old cadres” and “new cadres,” depending on the date of an official’s entry into the revolutionary movement. There was also a complex system of job evaluation that divided the civil service into 24 grades, each with its own rank, salary scales, and distinctions. Thus, there were very considerable differences of power, prestige, and prerogatives and psychological barriers between the highest and lowest grades, just like between the cadres and the masses. These distinctions and discrepancies were widely attacked during the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, but they remained deeply ingrained in the administrative structure. Japan. Until the 17th century, Japan was administered by a military establishment made up of vassals and nobles. After the 1630s a civil bureaucracy developed and had a more important role than the military. Appointment within the bureaucracy was based upon family rank, and officials were loyal primarily to the feudal lord. The Japanese bureaucracy moved away from feudal rank as the basis of appointments and established in its place loyalty to the emperor only after Matthew C. Perry sailed four U.S. warships into Uraga Harbour in 1853. Thus more than two centuries of Japan’s isolation from the rest of the world was ended by force. After that, merit appointments were introduced in Japan. Yet, a modern civil service was created on the basis of job security, career paths, and entry by open competition only in the 1880s, during the Meiji Restoration. Tokyo University law graduates dominated this new civil service. Personal loyalty to the emperor was reflected in the status of Japanese civil servants as “Emperor’s Officials.” After World War II, the Allied occupation authorities directed much of a Japanese law. The law stated that all public officials should be servants of the people rather than of the emperor. The National Public Service Law of 1947 set up an independent National Personnel Authority to administer recruitment, promotion, conditions of employment, standards of performance, and job classification for the new civil service. Technically, the emperor himself became a civil servant. Civil servants were classified into two groups – the regular service and a special service. Civil servants in the former category entered the service by competitive examination on a standard contract with tenure. The special service included elected officials and political appointees and covered such officials as members of the Diet (legislature), judges, members of the audit boards, and ambassadors. Although in theory the sovereign people have an inalienable right to choose and dismiss all public officials – who are constitutionally described as “servants of the whole community” – both tradition and political practice have allowed the civil service in Japan to retain and consolidate its old position in government. The idealization of the scholar-bureaucrat (a Confucian tradition borrowed from China) makes the civil service an independent power centre. Political struggles in the Diet have led to constantly changing ministries, and individual ministers rarely stay at a post long enough to establish firm control of their administration. As in many democratic countries with volatile political systems, administrative control has tended to pass to senior civil servants. 2) What is common between the civil services in China and Japan? In what way is the Eastern civil service different from the Western one? 3) Choose the words from the text for your dictionary of professional terms. 5.8 EMERGENCE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN DEVELOPING NATIONS 1) Read this text and do task 1 for text 5.3. Less-developed countries faced a serious problem with their civil services. After World War II many such countries became independent before they had developed effective administrative structures or bodies of trained civil servants. Few of the colonial powers had enough trained indigenous administrators. The British left a viable administrative structure in India and a partly Indianized civil service, but the newly independent Pakistan had few experienced civil servants. The Belgians left the Congo without any trained administrative or technical staff, and for some years there was near anarchy there. Even when such countries inherited reasonably efficient administrative organizations, the politicians of newly independent countries could not fulfill their supporters’ expectations. Civil servants from the old colonial powers often thought that radical policies and new masters were unpleasant. At the same time, they were seldom an adequate substitute themselves. The lack of qualified personnel sometimes led to inefficiency and to a decline in administrative morality. Nepotism, tribalism, and corruption were not rare. In many countries the incapacity of the civil service led to military rule. Military regimes often became the last resort of a country where the civil power could not cope with the problems of independence. Consequently, the United Nations, together with the governments of advanced countries, began to develop training programs for civil servants from underdeveloped countries. The first request came from Latin America, which led to the founding of a school of public administration in Brazil, followed in 1953 by an Advanced School of Public Administration for Central America. Various other international organizations, including the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development and the World Bank, supported institutions for the training of administrators in the less-developed countries. Such institutions included the Arab Planning Institute in Kuwait, the Arab Organization of Administrative Sciences in Jordan, and the Inter-American School of Public Administration in Brazil. Civil servants from the less-developed nations also studied administration at such places as the Institute of Social Studies in the Hague, the Netherlands, the Institute of Local Government Studies in Birmingham, England, and the International Institute of Public Administration in Paris. After the 1970s the international agencies gave less help toward training, on the assumption that the less-developed nations would take on greater responsibility themselves. Training was usually generalist and academic, and led to acute shortages of trained administrators in specialized fields such as finance and planning. However, organizations such as the British Council began to remedy some of these deficiencies in the early 1980s. |