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The knowledge of how to make durable concrete has been lost for centuries.Fusion of Roman and North European traditions in construction was reflected in many ways. Many structures made of concrete remain till nowadays thus proving the long life of buildings made of concrete. Materials that are used for structural purposes should meet several requirements. Concrete is referred to as one of the most important building materials. Steel has come into general use with the development of industry The architects and engineers have turned to plastics to add beauty to modern homes and offices. We use many building materials for bearing structures. Binding materials are used for making artificial stone and for joining different planes. Timber is a name applied to the cut material derived from trees. Timber used for building purposes is divided into two groups: softwoods and hardwoods Timber cannot be used for either carpenters' or joiners' work immediately it has been felled because of the large amount of sap which it contains. Stone has been used as a structural material since the earliest days. In some places stone was used because of the scarcity of timber, but in other places stone was preferred because of its durability. Sandstone is composed of grains of sand or quarts cemented together. The durability of sandstones depends very largely upon the cementing material. These characteristics are possessed by all metals but the metals themselves differ from one another. Cast iron is chiefly used in building for compressed members of construction, as the supporting members. II. Read the text below. For question1-10 choose the answer (A, B or C) which you think fits best according to the text. FROM THE HISTORY OF HOUSE CONSTRUCTION Man has always been a builder. The kind of house he built depended upon the climate, upon his enemies, and upon the building materials at hand. The first houses in many parts of the world were made of wood, for in those days the greater part of the Earth was covered with forests. In other regions the most convenient building material was stone. Although they were built without cement, the remains of a few of them still exist. The ancient Egyptians built very simple houses by present standards. Having dried the bricks in the sun, they put up four walls, and above these they placed a flat roof because there was very little rain in Egypt. Although their buildings were simple in construction, the Egyptian art of building was very beautiful. It was ancient Egypt that gave the world its first lessons in the art of making columns. The Greeks learned much from Egypt. But they built a slanting roof because there was much rain in their country. They also improved on Egypt’s columns and soon became the teachers of the world in column making. The Romans, in turn, learned much from the Greeks. First of all they borrowed the slanting roof and the columns. But they added the arch, thus adding much strength and beauty to their buildings. In the Middle Ages many monarchs and nobles built castles as a form of defense. Those castles had very strong walls, narrow windows and projecting fortifications. During the Renaissance arts and sciences underwent great changes. In architecture these changes were marked by a return to classical forms and proportions of ancient Roman buildings. The buildings of the 19th century are characterized by the use of new materials and by a great diversity of architectural styles. From the end of the 18th century iron and steel became widely used as alternatives to wood, for by that time many countries experienced shortage of this material. The 20th century is notable for widespread use of steel-reinforced concrete. Huge reinforced concrete units are brought to the site which becomes something like an assembly shop. This technique has many advantages over other building methods. It cuts the labour needed for building by 60 to 70 % and extends the building season. The architecture of the 20th century is characterized by very high buildings – particularly skyscrapers – and by great diversity of styles which completely differ from those of the past. 1. The first houses in most parts of the world were made … a) wood b) stone c) building materials at hand 2. The ancient Egyptians built their houses a) different from present standards b)of bricks being dried in the sun c) with slanting roofs 3. It was … that gave the world’s first lessons in column making. a) the ancient Egypt b) the Rome c) the Greece 4. It was … who became the teachers in column construction. a) the ancient Egypt b) the Rome c) the Greece 5. It was … that added arch in construction. a) the ancient Egypt b) the Rome c) the Greece 6. The period which was marked by a return to proportions of the oldest Roman buildings was… a) the Middle Ages b) the Renaissance c) the18th century 7. Many monarchs and rich people built their houses with strong walls and narrow windows in … a) the Middle Ages b) the Renaissance c) the 18th century 8. Iron and steel as alternatives to wood became commonly used building materials in … a) the 20th century b) the 19th century c) the 18th century 9. The 20th century is known for… a) use of prefabricated units and structures b) wide use of steel and wood in construction c) wide use of steel and iron because of shortage of wood 10. The architecture of the 20th century is characterized by… a) skyscrapers b) great number of architectural styles which so differ from those of the past c) a great diversity of styles which were used in the past times HOME READING Read and translate the text. TEXT 1. CERAMIC TILES It is a well-known fact that there exist many types of bricks. Some of I hem are highly usable in construction while others are not popular because of their poor properties. Between these types there lie various types that are used for specific purposes. To them belong, for example, ceramic tiles. Ceramic tiles is a burned-clay product. It is mainly used for decorative and sanitary purposes. A ceramic tile consists of a clay body (корпус) covered with decorative glaze. Ceramic tiles are usually flat in form. They are extremely various. They vary in size from about 1/2 in square to more than 6 in. Their shapes are widely variable: squares, rectangles, hexagones, and others. Ceramic tiles are produced from clays of different colours. But — strange as it is — their colours do not depend on the colours of clays they are made of. Tiles are glazed, as a rule, and their colour depends on the colour of the glaze they are covered with. It is quite natural that ceramic tiles in practice exist in wide variety of colours: from pure whites to deep darks and blacks. Ceramic tiles are applied to the covered surface by means of a mortar or some adhesive substance. They are usually applied with the thinnest mortar joint. 1. Pair work. Put these questions to your groupmate. Let him/her answer them.
Read and translate the article. TEXT 2. Terracotta Terracotta belongs to decorative types of brick. They are produced of burned clay. Their structural properties being similar to the properties of brick, they are often used in a manner similar to brick. Terracotta also exists in a wide variety of colours from pure whites to blacks. Their colour depends on the colour of the glaze they are covered with. Different adhesive substances are used for the application of terracotta to the surfaces being decorated with them. Read and translate the text. TEXT3. WOOD Wood has been a highly used building material since prehistoric times. Among other highly used construction materials there are concrete, steel, brick, stone, and plastics. They all differ in their properties and in the methods of usage. Construction materials are known to differ in strength, hardness, fire- and corrosion-resistance durability, and, naturally, cost. Being the oldest building material, wood is also known to be the only naturally growing organic material. Is wood strong? Hardly so, because wood always contains some water which decreases its strength. But after thewood is cut, the water content starts to evaporate and as the water content decreases the strength of the cut wood and its hardness start to increase. It is a well-known fact that the drier is the cut wood the greater is its strength and hardness. Trees are known to grow naturally, which makes wood a constantly renewable natural resource. Among other advantages of wood there are its low cost, low weight, and high workability. But, as any other construction material, wood has its disadvantages. The main ones are the following — it is not fire-resistant, it easily burns. Besides, it easily decays. Read and translate the text. Answer the questions after the text. TEXT4.. WOOD PRODUCTS Wood used for construction purposes is usually changed into laminated wood or wood panel products. Large structural wooden members are produced by glueing small strips of wood together. Wood in panel form is more advantageous for many building purposes than boards. Why is it so? First of all, because wood panels are much easier to install than boards. They require much less labour for the process of installation. Besides, swelling (набухание) and splitting (расщепление) in panels are greatly decreased compared with boards. As to plywood panels, they are made up of thin wooden veneers glued together. It is of great importance to note that when wooden structures are designed the future stresses of their structural members must be predetermined.
V Does the water content in the cut wood increase or decrease?
Read and translate the text. TEXT5. FROM THE HISTORY OF METALS Metals began to be widely used as construction materials not so long iigo. Before the beginning of the nineteenth century metals played little structural role in the process of building. Mostly they served for joining parts of buildings. The ancient Greeks and Romans are known to use bronze for joining slabs of stone. It was only in the eighteenth century when the first all-metal structure was built in Europe. It was a cast-iron bridge across the river Severn in England. The strength of the bridge turned out to be so great that now, more than two centuries after its construction, it still carries heavy modern traffic across the Severn. In the first half of the nineteenth century cast iron and wrought iron were introduced and used for industrial construction in Europe and North America. Steel was not widely used, being considered a rare and expensive building material. Inexpensive steel first began to be produced and used only with the invention of the Bessemer process, in the 1850s. From that period on, metal started to be used as rather popular and useful building material. The famous Eiffel Tower of Paris was constructed of wrought iron in 1889. By that period several steel frame skyscrapers had already been built in the United States. That was the beginning of the new era; a new highly useful and popular construction material had been born and introduced into building industry. 1. Answer the questions given below. Try to do it without consulting the text of the article.
10. Are they good to live in? Would you like to live in a skyscraper? TEXT 6. STEEL Read the article and answer the questions after the text. What is steel as a construction material? Steel may be classified as iron with the controlled amount of carbon. The amount of carbon in steel is generally less than 1.7 per cent. Ordinary structural steel should contain less than three tenth of one per cent carbon. This kind of steel also contains small amounts of phosphorus, sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen and silicon. Like iron and its alloys, steel belongs to ferrous metals. It is a hard substance. Accordingly, it can be pulled, forged, and melted. Generally, steel, this strong metal, like other metals, is a good conductor of electricity. Alloyed steel and stainless steel are corrosion-resistant kinds of steel. Corrosion-resistant materials are known lo be widely used for plant equipment, furnaces, valves, etc. It should be noted that steel frames as a whole and their separate parts should be carefully designed: their function is to be able to carry the loads imposed on them and supported by them.
Read and translate the text TEXT 7. FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS All metals, with the exception of mercury (ртуть), are hard- and fire-resistant. The common properties of metals being hardness and high fire-resistance, they are widely used in modern construction. Metals are divided into two main groups: ferrous and non-ferrous. Iron, steel and their various alloys belong to the group of ferrous metals, while the main component of non-ferrous metals is not iron. All metals have some common properties: they can be pulled, forged, and melted. They are also good conductors of electricity. Ferrous metals are commonly used for construction of supporting members. Steel and other ferrous metals serve as reinforcement in ferroconcrete constructions. As to non-ferrous metals, their advantage is their being light. They are also good conductors of electricity, copper being the best one. Metals possess high resistance. Read and translate the text. 8. ALUMINUM. ALUMINA Aluminum is a considerably new structural material. For a long period it was considered to be rather expensive since its production required the use of electric power. Because of its relatively high cost, aluminum was not very popular as a construction material till the middle of the twentieth century. But now the situation is absolutely different. Aluminum and aluminum-based alloys are extremely popular and are widely used in various forms for construction purposes. The advantages of aluminum, compared with other popular metals, are its high strength combined with lightness. High-purity aluminum (about 99% pure) is soft and ductile but its great disadvantage is that it is not strong enough. At the same time it has high corrosion resistance and is used in construction of buildings as bright foil for heat insulation, roofing, exterior and interior architectural ornamentation. And what about aluminum alloys? They are much more advantageous than pure substance, Aluminum alloys are much harder and stronger than pure aluminum. Besides, pure aluminum is rather difficult to cast while many of its alloys are extremely easily cast. Pure aluminum is easily alloyed with other metals. And these combinations possess a great variety of usage. For example, when alloyed with copper, aluminum possesses additional strength. Unfortunately, it is much less corrosion resistive than alloys with manganese, chromium, or magnesium and silicon. One more advantage of aluminum is that it can be easily remelted over and over again. Aluminum combined with oxygen forms a new oxide. Its name is alumina. Alumina is a colourless crystallic substance. It is glass hard, solid and extremely durable. It should be also noted that being an excellent conductor aluminum is widely used in power engineering. It serves for long-distance transfer of electric power. . Pair work. Have a talk with your groupmate. Use the questions given below.
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