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ТЕМАТИКИ Classification of Automobiles and Tractors The AUTOMOBILE (car or truck) is a self-propelled (motor) vehicle intended for transporting goods and/or people and for carrying out special tasks. AS TO THE PURPOSE, motor vehicles are divided into transport vehicles, special-purpose vehicles, and competition vehicles. Transport vehicles are classed in several types: (a) cas - motor vehicles intended for carrying small groups of people (up to eight in number); (b) buses – passenger service vehicles designed for carrying large groups of people (more than eight in number); (c) trucks – motor vehicles intended for carrying various cargos. According to cargo (load-carrying) capacity, trucks are in turn divided into the following classes: pick-up trucks (up to 0,5 t), light trucks (from 1 to 2 t), medium tracks (from 2 to 5 t), heavy trucks (from 5 to 15 t), and overweight tracks (more than to 15 t) Trucks used to carry loose and sticky goods are equipped with tipping bodies and are referred to as dump trucks. Special-purpose vehicles, as their name implies, are intended for special work and are equipped accordingly. This group includes truck cranes, tank trucks, seed-filler trucks, etc. These are modifications of standard transport vehicle models. Competition vehicles are cars specially designed for racing. AS TO THE TYPE OF CHASSIS, motor vehicles may be either framed or frameless. Framed vehicles have a support structure, called frame, to which all the component parts of the vehicle are attached. Frameless (unit-construction) vehicles have no frame, and all their component parts are attached directly to the vehicles body. The body in this case is referred to as unitized. AS TO THE PRIME MOVER, automobiles may be powered by carburettor engines, diesel engines, or electric motors. Carburettor engines operate mainly on gasoline (petrol), diesel engines run on diesel fuel, and electric motors are supplied from storage batteries. Accordingly, automobiles are divided into gasoline-powered, diesel-powered, and battery-powered types. The TRACTOR is a wheeled or tracked self-propelled vehicle used as a power means for moving agricultural, road building, and other machines equipped with special tools, and also for towing trailers. The tractor engine can be used as a prime mover for active (moving) tools or stationary farm machinery through the intermediary of the power takeoff (PTO) shaft or belt pulley. The uses of the tractor in agriculture are many, also so different types of tractor are needed to do different types of farm work. AS TO THE PURPOSE, modern farm tractors are classed in three groups: general purpose (land utility) tractors, universal-row-crop (row-crop-utility) tractors, and special-purpose tractors. Special-purpose tractors are modifications of standard land or row-crop utility tractor models and are used for definite jobs (e.g. in vineyards, cotton fields) or for various jobs under certain conditions (e.g., on marshy soils, hillsides). Thus, special tractors used to mechanize the cultivation of cotton have a single front (steerable) wheel, swamp tractors are equipped with-wide tracks enabling then to operate on marshy soils, and hillsides tractors are designed to work on hillsides tractors are designed to work on hillsides sloping at up to 16 AS TO DESIGN OF THE RUNNING GEAR, tractors are divided into crawler (track-laying) and wheeled types. Crawler tractors are distinguished by a large ground contact area and therefore have a good track adhesion; they crush and compact the soil insignificantly. Such tractors show a high cross-country power and are capable of developing a high pull. Wheeled tractors are more versatile and can be used for both field and transport work, but their traction is lower than that of crawler tractors. Vocabulary vehicle - транспортное средство to carry out - выполнять self-propelled - самоходный purpose – назначение, цель is intended for …- предназначен для … capacity - мощность, емкость to tip - опрокидывать cargo - груз crawler – tractor - гусеничный трактор cargo (load-carrying) capacity - грузоподъемность wheeled tractor - колёсный трактор dump truck - самосвал steerable - управляемый frame - рама to equip - оборудовать to attach - прикреплять belt pulley - ремённый шкив storage battery - аккумулятор shaft – вал ЗАДАНИЯ К ТЕКСТУ: 1. Прочтите и переведите текст, пользуясь словарём. 2. Ответьте на вопросы: 1. What is the automobile intended for? 2. What is the classification of transport vehicles? 3. What is the classification of trucks according to their load – carrying capacity? 4. Give some examples of special – purpose vehicles. 5. What are competition vehicles designed for? 6. What is the difference between framed and frameless vehicles? 7. Which prime mover may carburettor, diesel and electric motor be powered by? 8. Is the tractor used for road building? 9. Which type of tractors is used for field tasks? 10. Special-purpose tractors are used for definite jobs or for jobs under certain conditions, aren’t they? Fundamentals of Automobile Basically, the automobile consist of four components: 1) The engine. 2) The framework, or support for the engine and wheels. 3) The power train, or mechanism that transmits the power from the engine to the wheels. 4) The body. To these may be added a fifth components, the car-body accessories: the heater, light, radio, and other devices that contribute to the convenience and comfort of the driver. The Engine. The engine is the source of power that makes the wheels around and the car move. It is usually referred to as internal combustion engine because gasoline is burned with in its cylinders, or combustion chambers. Most automobile engines have six or eight cylinders, although some four-, twelve- and sixteen-cylinder engines are in use. Fuel System. The fuel system is designed to store liquid gasoline and to deliver it to the engine cylinders in the form of vapor mixed with air. It consists of a fuel tank in which the gasoline is stored, a fuel line, through which the gasoline can be brought from the tank to the engine, a fuel pump, which pulls the gasoline through the fuel line, and a carburetor, which mixes the gasoline with air. Electric System. The electric current performs several jobs on the car. It cranks the engine, furnishes electric sparks at the spark plugs that ignite the compressed mixture in the cylinders, operates the radio and heater motor, suppliers light for night driving, and operates gauges on the dash of the car that indicate charging rate, oil pressure, engine temperature, and the amount of the fuel in the tank. The electric system consists of the storage battery, cranking motor, generator, distributor, ignition coil, and spark plugs as well and switches that connect these various units. Light, radio, heater, indication rouges and other electrically operated devices are usually considered as accessory devices, since they are not absolutely necessary to the operation of the car. Power Train. The power that engine develops must be transmitted to the car to wheels, so that the wheels will rotate and cause the car move. The power train performs this job providing in the process several different gear ratios between the engine crankshaft and wheels, so that the crankshaft may rotate approximately four, eight, or twelve times to cause the wheels to rotate once. The power train consists of a series of gears and shafts, which mechanically connect the engine shaft with the car wheels and contains a clutch transmission or change gears, a propeller or cardan shaft, and a final drive. (a) Clutch. The clutch permits the driver to connect the crankshaft to, or disconnect if from, the power train its main part is a friction disk pressed tightly by springs to the smooth face of the engine flywheel. The flywheel is attached to the end of the engine crankshaft, and when the clutch is engaged, the friction disk is held against the flywheel so that it revolves with the flywheel. When the clutch foot pedal is depressed the friction disk movies away from the flywheel face and stops revolving; when the foot pressure on the clutch pedal is removed, the springs again force the friction disk against the flywheel face, so that it once more rotate with the flywheel. The rotary motion is transmitted through the clutch shaft to the transmission gears and from there through the propeller shaft on to the rear wheels. (b) Transmission. The transmission or change gears provide a means of varying the gear ratios of the engine crankshaft and the wheels. There are three main gear positions in the automobile transmission: low gear, second gear, and high gear. Thus the engine crankshaft may turn four, eight, or twelve times for each wheel revolution (approximately). In addition, a reverse gear is provided that permits backing the car. The varying gear ratios are necessary since the engine does not develop much power at low engine speeds: it must be turning at a fairly high speed in order to deliver enough power to start the car moving. Thus, on first starting, the gears are placed in low speed so that the engine crankshaft will turn approximately 12 times for each wheel revolution. The clutch is then engaged, so that the power is applied to the wheels. Car speed increases with engine speed until the car is moving 5 or 10 miles per hour, at which time the engine crankshaft may be turning as many as 2.000 r. p. m. The clutch is then disengages, the gears are shifted in second, and the clutch is again engaged. A still higher car speed is obtained as engine speed is again increased; the gears are then shifted in high, the clutch being disengaged and engaged for this operation is before. Vocabulary power train - система передачи мощности. to transmit - передавать accessories - второстепенные части source of power - источник энергии internal combustion engine - двигатель внутреннего сгорания combustion chamber - камера сгорания fuel tank - топливный бак vapor - пар gauge - измерительный прибор spark plug - свеча зажигания crank shaft - коленчатый вал propeller shaft - карданный вал clutch - сцепление final drive - главная передача flywheel - маховик reverse gear - задняя передача revolutions per minute (rpm) - обороты в минуту ЗАДАНИЯ К ТЕКСТУ: 1. Прочтите и переведите текст, пользуясь словарём. 2. Ответьте на вопросы: 1. Which are the basic parts of the automobile? 2. What is the purpose of engine? 3. What does the fuel system consist of? 4. Which jobs are performed by electric system? 5. What does the power train consist of? 6. What function does the clutch provide in the engine of the automobile? 7. How does the transmission work? Smart Cars to Enter Auto Market Carmina (as this system is known) not only informs the driver about the intensity of traffic, the weather, parking places or gas stations, but also chooses the optimal route with account to roads and traffic flows. All information is illumined on a liquid-crystal screen positioned on the dash board. For example, on the map of Paris and the Ile-de-France district different colors are used to designate “unloading” routes, bottlenecks and repair works, as well as sectors which are closed for passage. The colors continually change, reflecting the changing traffic conditions. Before switching on the guidance system which “speaks” five languages, one needs to feed all information about the city and the streets of departure and destination into the computer. Following this, a white arrow appears on the screen, pointing to the initial position, the name of the next street and the distance to it. The driver also constantly sees the arrow indicating the general direction of movement and the distance remaining in the trip If you listen to music, the FM program will be periodically interrupted by a voice telling you: “Turn right in 200 meters” or “Head for exit three from the square.” If the address of the point of departure has been fed incorrectly, it will take the system not more than three minutes to find its bearings relative to one of the four GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites, correct the error and establish the real whereabouts with an accuracy of several tens of meters. But if you miss the turn in ten to fifteen seconds a new route will be offered to you – the shortest and the least difficult. It is also presumed that Carmina will learn to appraise the time needed for the trip. In Paris the system works thanks to magnetic sensors positioned under the roadbed (near traffic lights): every five seconds they transmit to the traffic controller's office information regarding traffic levels. At first glance, the “alto” only differs from other Citroen, XM models because of a laser ranger finder built into the radiator grill and a small camera mounted above the inner rearview mirror. But if we take a look in the cabin, it will become clear that there arc many more differences. On the windshield there is a small superhigh frequency antenna. It transmits signals to road beacons which are currently being constructed. In the event of slippery road conditions the necessary information will be sent to the traffic controller who will then transmit warning signals to drivers approaching the dangerous sector. In the event of highway driving the “alto” is equipped with a “smart” speed regulator. This system switches on a laser range finder (which in the future might be replaced by radar), as well as a computer and electronic control of the accelerator and brake pedals. If you decide to drive at 130 kph, the system will automatically make sure the distance between you and the car in front of you is not less than 54 meter (half a second in terms of time). If, for example, you have caught up with a motor vehicle driving at 120 kph the system will automatically reduce the distance to 45 meters. Vocabulary guidance system - система поиска parking place - место парковки optimal route - оптимальный маршрут dash board - панель приборов departure - отправление destination - место прибытия real whereabouts - местонахождения roadbed - дорожное покрытие radiator grill - решетка радиатора inner rearview mirror - внутреннее зеркало заднего вида windshield - (лобовое) ветровое стекло superhigh frequency antenna - СВЧ антенна slippery road - скользкая дорога warning signals - предупреждающее сигналы vehicle - транспортное средство steering wheel column - рулевая колонка secondary road - второстепенная дорога sophisticated equipment - сложное оборудование speeders - любители быстрой езды ЗАДАНИЯ К ТЕКСТУ: 1. Прочтите текст, пользуясь словарём. 2. Ответьте на вопросы: 1. What is Carmina? 2. What is Carmina intended for? 3. How does Carmina work? 4. What is the difference between Carmina and “alto”? 5. Which sophisticated equipment does the “alto” use? 6. How does the GPS work in Paris? 7. Where can a small superhigh frequency antenna be found? 8. Who will transmit warning signals to drivers approaching the dangerous sector? ТЕКСТЫ ПОДЪЕМНО - ТРАНСПОРТНОЙ ТЕМАТИКИ JACKS AND HOISTS Jacks A jack is the simplest load lifting appliance for raising a load to a small height. There are mechanical (screw and rack and pinion) and hydraulic jacks. Screw jacks utilize self-stopping screws. When lever of a rack-and-pinion jack is turned, motion is transmitted through gear drive to rack which raises the load on its support. A rack-and-pinion jack has a higher efficiency and its support can be placed under a lower lying load than a screw jack. On the other hand, it is more dangerous to operate since it has no brakes and the load is lowered with the ratchet pawl released. Hydraulic jacks capable of handling up to 500 tons of weight are employed to erect heavy equipment and structures to a height of 0.15-0.3 meter. Ram moves in a cylinder. Piston rises when fluid (mineral oil or antifreeze compound) is forced into the cylinder from chamber by reciprocating pump actuated by a lever. A channel connecting the cylinder with the chamber and stopped by valve is used to lower the piston. To raise structures weighing thousands of tons several jacks operated by one electrically driven pump are jointed together. Special hydraulic jacks are used for tensioning reinforcement in manufacturing prestressed reinforced-concrete products. Rack-and-pinion jacks employed in Russia. can handle from 0.5 to 10 tons, screw jacks from 1 to 20 tons and hydraulic jacks from 3 to 500 tons. Hoists A hoist, a simple suspension-type small-size mechanism, is used mainly for assembling machines. There are hand-operated and electric hoists. The hand-operated hoist is attached by its upper hook above the load and lifts it by its bottom hook. When endless chain is pulled by hand, chain wheel turns worm couple. The shaft of the worm wheel carries sprocket, which lifts the load by means of roller chain. The suspended load is held at rest by automatic brake with a ratchet gear. When chain is pulled for descent the brake is automatically released, but if the operator leaves hold of chain the load will be again stopped by the brake. The operation of a traveling electric hoist with a trolley is given here. Via a shaft passing through a freely mounted drum and reduction gear, electric motor rotates rope drum which raises or lowers the load. The load suspended on the hook is held at rest by a normal disk brake. The brake is released by an electric magnet. In addition to this brake there is another brake, applied by the weight of the lifted load. Lever serves to switch off the hoisting mechanism when hook casing reaches its upper limit. The hoisting and traveling electric motors are controlled by push-button switch suspended on a flexible cable. Vocabulary rack – рейка lever – рычаг pump – насос reciprocating – возвратно-поступательный valve – клапан piston – поршень chamber – камера cone – конический clutch – сцепление to engage – соединять to disengage – разъединять band brake – ленточный тормоз rack and pinion jack – домкрат с механизмом реечной передачи ram – плунжер winch – лебёдка hoist – подъёмник, таль assembling – сборка ratchet gear – храповая передача to release – отпускать, освобождать trolley – тележка roller chain – роликовая цепь reduction gear – передача через редуктор rest – опора lever – рычаг hook casing – кожух крюка sheave – шкив ЗАДАНИЯ К ТЕКСТУ: 1. Прочтите и переведите текст, пользуясь словарём. 2. Ответьте на вопросы: 1.What is a jack? 2.What jacks do you know? 3. How does a rack-and-pinion jack operate? 4.What is a handling capacity of hydraulic jacks? 5.How does a hydraulic jack operate? 6. Where are jacks used? 7. What is a hoist? 8. What hoists do you know? 9. How does a traveling electric hoist operate? TOWER CRANES (Part 1) Tower cranes are of predominant use in construction practice. They are used to lift materials, parts and whole structures onto the buildings being erected, to install separate elements and for loading and unloading operations. These cranes are classified by: (a) the load moment: 4, 16, 25, 40, 60, 100, 160 and 250 ton-meters. The load moment is the product of the weight being lifted by the outreach (work arm); (b) the number of working movements: three movements (hoisting, slewing, traveling), or four movements (the same plus luffing or jibbing). (c) the design of the revolving structure: with an upper or lower revolving head; (d) the arrangement of the counterweight: at the top or at the bottom. The tower crane is made up essentially of a support, tower, revolving structure, boom, counterweight and controls. The support carries the traveling mechanism. The tower carries the operator's cab and some of the mechanisms. It is designed as a latticed steel framework or is made of large-diameter steel tubes. The operating members consist of the boom, a hoisting pulley and a load handling attachment, usually a hook. Counterweight compensates for the weight of the boom and part of the weight of the load being lifted by the crane. Vocabulary to jib - поворачиваться counterweight - противовес frame - рама tapered - конический to ship - поставлять inclination - наклон support - опора tower - башня boom - стрела load handling attachment – грузозахватный орган hook - крюк gantry - козлы ЗАДАНИЯ К ТЕКСТУ: 1. Прочтите и переведите текст, пользуясь словарём. 2. Ответьте на вопросы: 1. Where are tower cranes used? 2. What are the cranes used for? 3. What are tower cranes provided with? 4. How are tower cranes classified? 5. What does a tower crane consist of? 6. What is a support of tower cranes like? 7. What does the support carry? 8. What does the tower carry? 9. What are the operating members of tower cranes? 10. What weight does counterweight compensate? TOWER CRANES (Part 2) The first group includes cranes with the turntable and the counterweight mounted at the top. The stationary tower is a metal framework consisting of several sections. The rigid support is made in the form of gantry on traveling wheels. When this crane has to be shipped from site to site it is split into separate large units and is then assembled again at the new site. The operator's cab is built into the middle of the tower. The development of prefabricated reinforced-concrete structures and large-size panels gave a powerful stimulus to the production of new mobile tower cranes with a highly maneuverable boom. The winding gear provides for a horizontal movement of the load as the boom changes its angle of inclination, thus facilitating the placement of the load. The load winch is equipped with a mechanism ensuring that the load is smoothly set at a low speed, an extremely valuable feature in erecting elements of prefabricated structures of buildings and bridges. In cranes of this group all mechanisms and the counterweight are arranged at the bottom, on the turntable, which revolves together with the tower. This improves the crane stability, and simplifies its assembly and dismantling. The revolving gear takes the form of a ring resting on a supporting frame where it joins the turntable. The running gear of certain cranes enables them to travel round curves on the runway. This becomes necessary when the crane is used to erect buildings of a complicated configuration. To facilitate passage round sharp curves provision is made for a third rail laid between the main runway rails, which is bent and rises slightly above them. The crane, provided with a fifth wheel which runs on the third rail, goes round the curve on three wheels. A new and simpler device is a system of wheels mounted on hinge-jointed angle brackets. Tower and other rotary jib cranes (crawler- and truck-mounted, etc.) should be so designed as to circumvent the hazard of being tipped over by an excessive load or an excessive load moment. Since the weight of the structures that have to be raised at construction sites is difficult to estimate beforehand, automatic devices are used for this purpose. The most widespread device is a load or height stop. With an electric drive, a switch is opened when the stop acts and the electric motor is turned off. The stop is mounted at the end of boom. The end of rope of the pulley system is secured by clamp to rod with calibrated spring. When the weight of the load exceeds the safe limit the spring will be compressed, the rod and arm will go down, the end of the lever will press on small weight and open the contacts of switch. This will stop the motor of the hoisting mechanism. If the hook casing reaches the upper limit, lug will raise weight and slop the motor. Sometimes stops of this kind are mounted on tower and other rotary cranes whose outreach changes when the boom is being raised. They automatically change the safe load-lifting capacity while keeping the load moment constant, making it possible to increase the weight of the load at a smaller outreach. Vocabulary trolley - тележка slabs - слябы winding gear - механизм подъёма стрелы load - груз winch - лебёдка to tip over - переворачиваться drive - привод running gear - механизм передвижения runway - подкрановые пути ЗАДАНИЯ К ТЕКСТУ: 1. Прочтите и переведите текст, пользуясь словарём. 2. Ответьте на вопросы: 1. How many design groups of tower cranes do you know? 2. What cranes does the first group include? 3. What is a stationary tower made of? 4. How can the cranes be shipped from site to site? 5. Where is an operator’s cab? 6. How may the trolley travel? 7. What are the cranes belonging to the second group? 8. What does the crane winding gear provide for? 9. What mechanism is a load winch equipped with? 10. Where are all mechanisms and counterweight arranged? 11. What does the running gear enable crane to do? ТЕКСТЫ НЕФТЕГАЗОВОЙ ТЕМАТИКИOIL Petrol stations with their lines of pumps are among the commonest sights along main roads today. Without petrol commerce and industry would soon come to a standstill. Traffic in great cities would stop, and millions of workers be unable to get or from their work. Petroleum is the name of the mineral oil that comes from under the ground and from which petrol is obtained. It is the crude oil that comes from the wells. From this crude oil we obtain the various fuels that drive ships, aircraft, and many forms of land transport. Oil usually lies thousands of feet below the earth’s surface. There are many ways of discovering this underground oil, but the only way to be certain that it exists is to make a deep hole, called a bore-hole or a well, through the rock, earth and sand. The steel framework over the well is called a derrick. From this the machinery that makes the hole is raised and lowered. Bore-holes are often very deep. Some of them go down to a depth of two miles, or even farther. The diameter may be 24 inches at the top, and as little as 3 or 4 inches at the bottom. Many oil-fields are hundreds of miles from the sea. As petroleum is needed in all parts of the world and has to be transported across the oceans, it is carried from oilfields to the sea in pipe-lines that may go for very large distances. The crude oil may be stored in the tanks from which ships called oil-tankers carry it to many countries. Crude oil contains many different materials. From crude oil we obtain petrol, paraffin and other products. In many parts of the world large quantities of natural gas exist where there is petroleum. This gas can be used instead of, or in addition to, the kind of gas made from coal. Natural gas is very common in North America . Although petrol is the fist word we think of in connection with petroleum, other oils are important. The oil fuel used in Diesel engines is much cheaper than petrol. Kerosene (paraffin oil) is another fuel obtained from petroleum. Other products obtained from petroleum are used in the manufacture of artificial rubber, asphalt for road surfaces, light machine oil and heavy engine oil. Vocabulary petrol - бензин petroleum - нефть crude - неочищенный bore-hole - буровая скважина derrick - буровая вышка obtain - получать store - хранить ЗАДАНИЯ К ТЕКСТУ: 1. Прочитайте и переведите текст. 2. Ответьте на вопросы: 1. What is a role of petrol in our life? 2.How is petrol obtained? 3.What is petroleum? 4. Where is oil? 5. How can one be certain that oil exists somewhere? 6. What is a derrick? 7. What may a depth of boreholes be? 8. How is petroleum carried from oilfields to the sea? 9. Where may the crude oil be stored? 10. What else may exist together with petroleum? |