Трудности перевода. Инфинитив в различных функциях

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_{Часть III}

1. ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ УСТНОГО ПЕРЕВОДА

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1. Hong Kong Won't Dollarize As Way to End Speculation

Hong Kong — National pride appears to be preventing authorities here from using what may be their most potent weapon against specula­tors attacking the Hong Kong dollar.

That weapon is the threat to replace Hong Kong's currency with the US dollar, thereby removing any target for speculators to aim at. Already, Argentina has raised the possibility of dropping its own currency in favor of the dollar. The suggestion, put forward recently be Argentine Presi­dent, came in the wake of rising concerns that Brazil's decision to aban­don support of the real would lead to other currency collapses in Latin America.

In theory, Hong Kong — which has a US dollar-linked currency sys­tem almost identical to Argentina's — could make the same switch. And some currency watchers believe no move would be more effective at ending the speculative pressure against the Hong Kong dollar than taking steps to «dollarize» the economy.

Yet Hong Kong's government has instead declared publicly that it doesn't believe dollarization is a viable option. The reason, some analysts say, is chiefly political: Hong Kong is Chinese territory, and China wouldn't want to relinquish sovereignty over any aspect of Hong Kong's governance, including its currency.

Yeung Wai Hong, publisher of Hong Kong's most widely read weekly magazine, calls it «nationalistic pride.» A frequent commentator on monetary issues, Mr. Yeung says dollarization would be « a perfect solu­tion» to Hong Kong's recurring run-ins with speculators.

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«From a tactical point of view, dollarization makes sense,» adds Dong Tao, senior economist at Credit Suisse First Boston (Hong Kong) Ltd., who has prepared a detailed report on the issue.

Not that Hong Kong hasn't looked at the issue. In April last year a government report examined the possibility of Hong Kong dollarizing, but concluded that it would be «draconian» and «may contravene» the Basic Law, the Hong Kong mini-constitution that governs its relationship with Beijing. The Basic Law says that «the Hong Kong dollar, as the le­gal tender (in Hong Kong), shall continue to circulate.» The report also highlighted that «huge legal problems» could arise as some contracts signed in Hong Kong would automatically become invalid. Mr. Tao and other analysts say that and other technical problems could be circum­vented by a gradual phasing out of the Hong Kong dollar, giving time for laws and contracts to be rewritten.

A government spokeswoman on financial issues states: «We have ex­amined the issue (of dollarization) and we find that it is not to be pursued in Hong Kong.»

2. The Olympic Sham

Is it cynical of me to ask if anyone was surprised at the scandal re­garding the state of Utah bribing Olympic officials in order to win the venue of the 2002 Winter Games?

The Olympic Games have become a sham. They are not only profes­sional now but also no longer independent of politics or chicanery or graft. Television income has ruled almost every aspect of the event, both Winter and Summer games.

«I do not believe in professional Olympics,» Lord Killanin pro­nounced when he took over in 1972. Yet under his aegis a set of new rules were passed for all athletes, allowing them money for food and lodging, for transport and all sorts of equipment and clothing, for physical therapy and coaches and insurance, and even pocket money. No limit is placed anymore on the length of time that any of that money may be spent in training. The attempt to mix amateurism and economics, which are surely incompatible, has now turned the Games from a noble experiment in global unity to a battle-ground of crass nationalism and shameless graft.

The eligibility code of the Olympic Games Charter, which was created by the Congress of Paris in 1894, expressly stated: «A competitor must not have received any financial rewards or material benefits in connection with his or her sports participation.» It went on to declare that « competitors who have been registered as professional athletes or profes­sional coaches in any sport; signed a contract as a professional athlete;

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carried advertisement material on their person or clothing» may not par­ticipate in the Olympics.

None of that applies anymore. The Dream Team, a group of the great­est basketball players in the world, the cream of the National Basketball Association, each giant player a multimillionaire, was drafted to play in the 1992 and 1996 Summer Games in order that the US, drubbing such weighty teams as Albania and Peru, could win the gold medal.

Tennis players, skiers, track-and-field runners? They are all profes­sionals. Paid professionals. Paid and smug professionals. Just like the of­ficials of the IOC International Sports Federation. Everyone has been greased.

But it doesn't matter anymore. The ceremony of innocence is drowned. The spirit is gone, as well.

« Swifter, higher, stronger,» long the noble and altruistic slogan of the Olympic Games, should be changed to «Richer, fatter, happier.» The pursuit of excellence? Not anymore.

3. The Problem of Generations

Most serious writers on the problem of youth have recognized that youth's present difficulties in Western society are closely related to changed social and economic conditions and to the ensuing difficulty for youth in finding self-realization in work. As Goodman observes: «It's hard to grow up when there isn't enough man's work,» and he continues, «To produce necessary food and shelter is man's work. During most of economic history most men have done this drudging work, secure that it was justified and worthy of a man to do it, though often feeling that the social conditions under which they did it were not worthy of a man, thinking, «It's better to die than to live so hard» — but they worked on... Security is always first; but in normal conditions, a large part of security comes from knowing your contribution is useful, and the rest from knowing it's uniquely yours: they need you.»

Just as in this country an earlier generation needed youth because the economic security of the family depended on its contribution, so in Russia today youth is needed because only it can carry on the task of creating the new and better society; and in Africa because only it can move society from tribal confusion toward modern democracy. If the generations thus need each other, they can live together successfully, and the problem of their succession, though not negligible, can be mastered successfully. Under such conditions youth and age need each other not only for their economic but even more for their moral survival. This makes youth se­cure — if not in its position, at least in its self-respect. But how does the

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parent in modern society need the next generation? Certainly not for eco­nomic reasons any more, and what little expectation a parent may have had that his children would support him in old age becomes superfluous with greater social security. More crucially, the status-quo mood of the older generation suggests no need for youth to create a much different or radically better world.

In many respects youth has suddenly turned from being the older gen­eration's greatest economic asset into its greatest economic liability. Wit­ness the expense of rearing and educating youth for some twenty or more years, with no economic return to be expected. Youth still poses emo­tional problems. To the preceding generation, as of old. But in past gen­erations these emotional problems were, so to speak, incidental or subser­vient to economic necessity. What at best was once the frosting on the cake must now serve as both solid food and trimmings — and this will never work.

Thus the economic roles, obligations, and rewards are no longer clearly defined between the generations, if not turned upside down. Therefore, another aspect of the relation between the generations looms even larger; in a balance sheet of interaction that is no longer economic but largely emotional. Modern man, insecure because he no longer feels needed for his work contribution or for self-preservation (the automatic machines do things so much better and faster), is also insecure as a par­ent. He wonders how well he has discharged that other great function of man, the continuation of the species.

At this point modern youth becomes the dreaded avenging angel of his parents, since he holds the power to prove his parents' success or failure as success is no longer so important in society of abundance. Youth itself, feeling insecure because of its marginal position in a society that no longer depends on it for economic security, is tempted to use the one power this reversal between the generations has conferred on it: to be ac­cuser and judge of the parents' success or failure as parents.

4. The Second Stage

The first stage of the women's movement, says Friedan, was fought against the « old structure of the unequal polarized male and female sex roles » In their struggle for equality, however, some militant feminists went too far and also rejected the family itself. In the second stage, Frei-dan believes that women should fight for a restructuring of our institu­tions so those women can be truly free to choose their roles — including the important choice of having children.

The women's movement is being blamed, above all, for the destruc-

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tion of the family. Churchmen and sociologists proclaim that the Ameri­can family, as it has always been defined, is becoming and «endangered species,» with the rising divorce rate and the enormous increase in single-parent families and people — especially women — living alone. Women's abdication of their age-old responsibility for the family is also being blamed for the apathy and moral delinquency of the «me generation.»

Can we keep on shrugging all this off as enemy propaganda — «their problem, not ours?» I think we must at least admit and begin openly to discuss feminist denial of the importance of family, of women's own needs to give and get love and nurture, tender loving care.

What worries me today are the agonizing conflicts young and not-so-young women are facing — or denying — as they come up against the biological clock, at thirty-five, thirty-six, thirty-nine, forty, and cannot «choose» to have a child. I fought for the right to choose, and will con­tinue to defend that right, against reactionary forces who have already taken it away for poor women now denied Medicaid for abortion, and would take it away for all women with a constitutional amendment. But I think we must begin to discuss, in new terms, the choice to have children.

What worries me today is «choices» women have supposedly won, which are not real. How can a woman freely «choose» to have a child when her paycheck is needed for the rent or mortgage, when her job isn't geared to taking care of a child, when there is no national policy for pa­rental leave, and no assurance that her job will be waiting for her if she takes off to have a child?

What worries me today is that despite the fact that more than 45 per cent of the mothers of children under six are now working because of economic necessity due to inflation, compared with only 10 per cent in 1960; no major national effort is being made for child-care services by government, business, labor, Democratic or Republican parties — or by the women's movement itself.

5. Fight to Veto 'Dirty Dozen' Pesticides

An international campaign has been launched yesterday to ban the use and sale of the «dirty dozen», a list of pesticide chemicals that have been linked with cancer, birth defects and poisonings.

Friends of the Earth have joined forces with other environmental groups in Britain and abroad to have the 12 pesticide active ingredients banned worldwide.

« Many of the chemicals are already banned in several countries but the British government continues to give official clearance to them for use in agriculture, the home and garden,» a spokesman said.

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The campaign is being supported by groups in 25 countries taking si­multaneous action.

«Manufacture, import and export trade is allowed in all 12 of the 'dirty dozen' pesticides, even though there is worldwide evidence of their bad effects.

« Some of the chemicals have been linked with cancer and birth de­fects, while Parathion is a nerve-poison pesticide so acutely toxic that a teaspoonful splashed on the skin is fatal.

« Paraquat is also so poisonous that it has been responsible for many deaths in both humans and animals.

«These pesticides should be immediately suspended by the British government, pending a full and public review procedure, in which the evidence against them can be heard,' said FE pesticides campaigner. « They must be assumed guilty until proven innocent. Thousands of peo­ple have suffered and environments have been ruined. The case against the 'dirty dozen' is overwhelming, and the government must explain why it insists on letting this irresponsible trade go on.»

6. Jobless Youth

Liverpool — Until several years ago, the West European labor move­ment, as well as governments and business communities, did not even recognize youth unemployment as a major problem, or one that should be dealt with separately from adult joblessness.

But there are now over 10 million residents of the European Union without jobs, and people under 25, most of them with little or no em­ployment experience, account for more than 40 per cent of their ranks.

In France, Britain, and the Netherlands, youths are three times as likely to be without jobs as adults are. In Italy, youth unemployment rates are a startling seven times those for adults. Among the EU countries only Germany, perhaps because of a combination of strong apprenticeship programs and low wages for teen-agers, has brought youth unemployment down to adult levels of joblessness.

As the problem of jobless youth has moved to center stage—through international conferences, demonstrations, or riots like those that recently exploded in Liverpool and other British cities — the trade union move­ment has been under almost as much scrutiny and criticism as government officials and employers.

Labor leaders have been forced to concede that the economic crisis is often pitting the interests of older workers, struggling to hold on to their jobs, against those of younger people seeking employment for the first time. Businessmen and government officials, who once whispered their

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reservations, are now loudly proclaiming that past trade union successes in raising wage levels, social benefits and job security have priced young people out of the labor market.

Only belatedly have labor leaders recognized that their impressively organized unions are not particularly endowed to help people leaving school and applying for their first jobs.

A sign of growing labor concern in Britain, where youth unemploy­ment is among the worst in Europe, was the decision of the Trades Union Congress to launch a campaign with the country's main youth organiza­tions to mobilize public concern over the young jobless.

Labeling youth unemployment «the most serious crisis since World War II», the TUC general secretary warned that more violence would erupt in British cities unless action is taken on jobs.

In Liverpool, whose total unemployment rate is at twice the national level and has reached 40 per cent among young people, trade unions have only recently considered establishing centers to advise school leavers where to seek job training and how to claim unemployment benefits.

«It doesn't sound like much, and we're not at all certain we can take on such costs,» a division officer for the Union of Shop, Distributive and Allied Workers, said a few weeks before the upheavals in Liverpool. «A lot of us still feel we are talking about something that should be govern­ment's job. But the situation is appalling. Just a few days ago, there were 69 applicants for one secretary job in these offices — all of them 18- to 20-year-olds who never worked in their lives.» That ratio is not much worse than elsewhere in the city:

The Liverpool Employment Offices recently listed 51,000 job seekers for 1,000 vacancies.

In a now-famous speech, the Prime Minister suggested some time ago that people should be prepared to move away from their communities in search of jobs.

But with few jobs available anywhere in the country, moving offers no solution to Liverpool's unemployed youth.

7. «The Right Product at Right Time»

¹ Tokyo — Less than a generation ago, the Japanese automobile was little known, and less respected, around the world. Even Japanese con­sumers were convinced that, could they afford it, the longer, plusher, gas-guzzling models of the United States, or the more bizairely sporty autos of Europe, were preferable to their own modest products.

But times have changed. Last year, Japanese industry exported 5,966,961 vehicles (including trucks), or fully 54 per cent of its entire

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production. Most of those were directed to markets in the United States and Europe where, for a variety of reasons, Japanese cars have become the rage.

Japanese manufacturers claim they were as surprised as anyone by the surging demand for their product. « We just happened to have the right product at the right time,» says one automobile executive.

As they tell it, the rising popularity of Japanese automobiles in the American market was due much more to the sudden increase in the price of oil than to any «blitz» or economic offensive on their part. When prices at the local pump doubled in less than a year, and American auto manufacturers were unable to supply a sufficient number of fuel-efficient cars, Japanese auto dealers moved in to fill the gap. In Detroit it is widely presumed that the ills of the American auto industry are largely caused by the Japanese « assault». Had the Japanese restrained themselves, and not taken advantage of the situation, the 30 per cent unemployment figure for U.S. auto workers would not have arisen, claim the U.S. auto makers.

The Japanese are convinced that their success in the United States is not the primary factor behind the financial and marketing failure of the U.S. companies. They argue that it was American auto mismanagement rather than Japanese « offensives» that resulted in the deficits.

But fuel efficiency must be only part of the problem, especially if the success of Japanese makers in the European countries is considered. There, the high quality of Japanese goods, their comparatively low price, and the excellent after-sales network are sales points, as in Europe the Japanese are competing against local producers well-stocked in fuel-ef­ficient cars.

Despite their success, Japanese auto makers and observers of the auto scene are increasingly uneasy about the future. On the one hand, they face the prospect of a tide of protection in the United States as well as in Europe.

On the other hand, the Japanese auto makers are caught on the horns of a domestic dilemma. With the Japanese auto market also stagnating — sales and registration at home are slack, and many dealerships are in defi­cit— they are under increasing pressure to export.

One highly touted, long-range solution to Japan's embarrassment of auto riches is the internationalization of Japan's auto industry. Already, there are clear signs that Japanese auto makers are moving to produce a large number of their vehicles overseas, no matter what the consequences for Japanese employment.

Given the fate of other auto makers, the Japanese should consider themselves quite fortunate. With most of the world's big car producers in deficit, the worst the big Japanese makers have to report is a slight de­cline in profits.

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8. Nasty, ubiquitous and unloved

Skinheads have been frightening a lot of people in post-communists Central Europe, but several governments are trying to control them

Among the countless plaques and memorials in the ancient bit of Hungary's capital overlooking the Danube is one that mourns German and Hungarian soldiers who died trying to break out of Buda Castle at the end of the second world war. This was where, on February 13^th, 500-odd neo-Nazi skinheads from around Europe gathered to lament the passing on the « SS heroes», after which they headed off to a nightclub called the Viking. When police appeared at the club and started asking for pass­ports, the skinheads rioted. Several policemen ended up in hospital, 30 foreign skinheads were arrested, six of whom were quickly tried and found guilty of assault. So it goes for skinheads: thuggery at home pil­grimages to Nazi memorials and scrapes with the law abroad.

Do not expect an eloquent exchange of opinions with Central Europe's shaven heads. When interviewed, they say little, standing arms crossed, fists clenched, eyes burning. Nor are their dogs, often pit bulls with sharpened incisors, much more friendly. The skinheads' preferred method of communication is a boot swiftly and repeatedly administered in the face of a prone victim, though in one recent attack Slovak skin­heads did use baseball bats to beat a gypsy boy almost to death. Their fa­vourite targets are indeed gypsies, followed by African students, sundry other ethnic minorities, drug addicts and the homeless.

There are differences between an average West European skinhead and his counterpart farther east. Not all western ones are neo-Nazis; not all are violent; some even call themselves «anti-racists», and enjoy Ja­maican reggae music. There are anarchist skinheads in the West, even glad-to-be-gay skinheads. But in Central Europe to be a skinhead is, on the whole, to be violent. Post-communist skinheads tend to swallow a mix of white supremacy, neo-Nazi dogma, and nationalism tailored to the country in question.

Their numbers vary from country to country, but have been going up. Government and police tend to deflate figures; human-rights groups and the skinheads themselves usually bump them up. One serious study, by the Anti-Defamation League in New York, reckons that, of some 70,000 hardcore neo-Nazi skinheads worldwide, Central Europe now accounts for a good quarter.

Last month, working together with the Czech secret service, police ar­rested 12 leading skinheads said to belong to the Czech chapter of a Brit­ish-based «Blood and Honour» gang. They also confiscated neo-Nazi propaganda due to be sold at a skinhead concert, and declared that neo-Nazis across the country had suffered a crippling blow.

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Human-rights watchers are less sure. Skinhead groups are well run. They distribute propaganda printed by American neo-Nazis in various languages and send out «skinzines» illegally through the post. The Czechs alone have 15 of them. They are nasty, but it may be hard to pin charges of inciting hatred on the arrested skinheads.

Still, many Central Europeans are trying to stem the skinhead tide. A few days after the riot in the Viking club, several thousand Hungarians gathered to protest against racism. Judges are being sent on courses to make them more aware of racially motivated crimes. The police are hiring gypsy advisers. It is only a start. But the alarm bells have rung: more and more decent Central Europeans reckon that something must be done.

9. Living without it

At the University of Texas Law School, the halls are whiter than they once were. Three years after a federal court ruled in Hopwood v Texas that public universities in the state could no longer use race as a factor when considering applicants, there are a mere eight black students in a first-year class of 455 at the law school, a smaller percentage than in 1950.

Although Texas is ground zero in the fight over racial preferences in American universities, it is far from the only battlefield. Last November, voters in Washington state passed a referendum similar to California's Proposition 209, banning racial preferences in college admissions. In both Washington and Michigan, lawsuits similar to the Texas case have been filed against the public universities.

For 30 years, American universities sought to increase racial diversity by recruiting and admitting minority candidates, sometimes at the ex­pense of white candidates with better qualifications. This practice went unchallenged until 1978, when the Supreme Court ruled that, although rigid racial quotas were unconstitutional, universities could take race into account since there was a «compelling interest» in promoting diversity in America's colleges.

Proponents of affirmative action, including most university adminis­trators, feel they need only point to the decline of minority enrolment in the best public universities in California and Texas in the two years since the ban on racial preferences went into effect.

Conservative opponents of preferences admit that minority numbers have decreased at the most selective public universities in Texas and Cali­fornia. Yet they point to the fact that enrolment of blacks and Latinos throughout the state system has remained stable since 1996. The way to guarantee more minority students at the top universities in the future, con­servatives argue, is to address the twin pillars of social disintegration: broken schools and broken families.

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Opponents of racial preferences also accuse the other side of double standards: on the one hand lamenting the decline of black and Latino en­rolment since 1996, yet at the same time ignoring the dramatic increase in the number of Asians admitted during that period. Long boasting the highest scores on standardised tests among minority groups, Asians have never needed preferential treatment from universities, and are now bene­fiting from the new system.

Both sides arm themselves with government studies and self-serving statistics; yet most people concede that very little can be done at the po­litical level. The future of racial preferences rests with the courts. What the legal system cannot do, however, is address the root of the problem: the fact that black and Latino students still lag woefully behind their white counterparts. So long as this grim reality persists, the system will remain broken, and no amount of judicial tinkering will fix it.

II. ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ ПИСЬМЕННОГО ПЕРЕВОДА

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1. What the EU Needs Is a Copy of «The Federalist» Papers

Los Angeles — It may be indelicate for an American to point out, but now that the start-up of Economic and Monetary Union has accelerated the European Union's pace toward full economic integration, the US ex­perience may provide some useful lessons. Not that we do everything right or that we provide a precise model for the working of a somewhat similar economy, but some long-standing American economic interac­tions do resemble those developing on the old Continent.

In at least three areas of economics — monetary policy, taxes, and fis­cal policy — we've been there, done that. Together, the three may also provide some hints about political confederation.

• In the realm of monetary policy the European Central Bank can learn from the Federal Reserve, if it is willing to. The Fed's ability to maintain its integrity while paying due deference to the democratically elected authorities with which it works provides a model more appropri­ate to a complex economy than does the haughty independence of the

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Bundesbank. The single-minded Bundesbank ideology — price stability-uber-alles — cannot work in a Europe where recession threatens to in­crease already high unemployment; the Fed's pragmatic willingness to bring growth and employment into the balance can.

• The lessons for tax policy are less direct. What is thought of, as tax policy in the United States cannot exist in the European Union because the EU levies no taxes of its own? It is financed by contributions from the member states, which use their tax revenues to support the EU budget as well as their much larger national needs. Although political infighting over relative contributions is inevitable, EU members have also been squabbling over « harmonization» of national taxes — setting EU-wide rules for rates and regulations.

The American experience suggests that this is quite unnecessary. The US Constitution provides few constraints on the ways in which the states may raise revenues: they can legally levy income taxes, corporate taxes, sales taxes and property taxes on their individual and corporate residents at any rates they want, and they do. State taxes vary, but the variations stay within limits because the citizens and the companies in the states compete with one another.

The limits are imposed by economics, not legislation; they work and cause few quarrels. Similar natural limits are in fact becoming visible in Europe; the squabbles are unnecessary.

With monetary policy in the hands of the European Central Bank, fiscal policy — budget deficits and surpluses a la Keynes — is the re­maining tool with which the member states of European Economic and Monetary Union, or EMU, can affect their own growth and employment. But such national autonomy is illusory however; the rules of monetary union limit deficits, and economic reality reinforces the rules. Before EMU a state could finance a deficit by borrowing from its own central bank. No longer.

The US model is again illuminating. The American states cannot run persistent deficits because they cannot borrow to finance those deficits, except at prohibitive interest rates. The federal government, however, can borrow from the Federal Reserve to finance immense deficits, has done so, and surely will again when economic downturn calls for fiscal stimu­lus. Except for one crucial difference, the government of EMU could similarly borrow from the central bank when dictated by Europe's needs — the difference, of course, being that there is no government of EMU.

This leads to the possible lesson for political confederation. When re­cession suggests a continentwide need for stimulus, the pressure will be on the member states to create some sort of joint fiscal decision-making mechanism. Such a mechanism will not be called a confederation but it

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will be a major step in that direction. It will raise the question of whether the mechanism should be used for making other joint decisions. That in turn should reraise the question of the «democratic deficit»; in particular, should the one body elected by European individuals, the Parliament, be given more power over such decisions?

The move will be on. At that point, an American might even have the temerity to suggest that Europeans read «The Federalist» papers.

2. What Happened to That «Global Architecture?

When Brazil had devalued the real, the folks in Washington who claim responsibility for global monetary order were uncustomarily silent. One is tempted to say there was stunned silence, but that would imply that Brazil's move came as a surprise to the Treasury and the International Monetary Fund.

Surely it didn't, but there was another very good reason to keep quiet. Brazil had been a test case for that new global « financial architecture» that President Bill Clinton proclaimed to the world last fall. The real's collapse made abundantly clear what some of us had assumed: The promise of a «new architecture» was just more Bill Clinton hot air.

Of course, the hot air had a purpose, as do all of Mr. Clinton's skill­fully crafted orations. He wasn't striving for «new architecture» as he claimed, but rather trying to save the old architecture, which was in dan­ger of collapse. Specifically, he was trying to persuade the US Congress to cough up more money for the tottering IMF. The Brazil gambit was one of the arguments employed. If the IMF were not refinanced, it could not bail out Brazil and Brazil would go the way of the Asian tigers, with serious repercussions for the US and world economy.

The string of disasters midwifed by the global money managers is re­flective not only of misjudgments but of a fatal flaw in the existing «architecture.» Mr. Clinton had the words right in September, he just didn't know the score. Either new architecture or no architecture at all is needed. But a president who spends most of his working hours figuring out how to buy votes with public money is not likely to be very critical of a multilateral agency that does pretty much the same thing. It subsidizes two very influential constituencies, international bankers and the profligate politicians who preside over such places as Russia, Indonesia and Brazil.

These bankers and politicians got the IMF's number a long time ago. They knew that institutions, like natural organisms, fight for self-preservation. The IMF keeps itself in business by winkling money out of

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rich nations such as the US and handing it out to the poorer brethren, who usually are poor because of gross economic mismanagement. In this age in which income transfers are deeply imbedded in politics, the IMF doesn't lack for clients.

What is absent is any convincing evidence that this has made the world a better place. Africa appears to be regressing, despite the billions poured into it by the IMF, US aid agencies and the World Bank. Asia, acting partly on IMF and US Treasury advice, took a big step backward, in terms of living standards, with the 1997 devaluations, as did Mexico in 1994. The Brazilian and Russian governments, living well beyond their means, were shielded from reality for far too long. The people in such places now must pay a price and their politicians will blame everyone but themselves, including Bill Clinton and Michel Camdessus.

The IMF has proved that it is impossible to get good conduct from politicians by subsidizing their bad conduct. President Fernando Henrique Cardoso (Brazil) made himself very popular when he killed hyperinfla­tion and gave his country a solid currency with the Real Plan. But he didn't follow through by reforming government itself. Had there been no international safety net supplied by an act of the US Congress, he might have seen fit to work harder. There should have been plenty of evidence around that monetary policy alone cannot compensate for governmental indiscipline.

So it's back to the drawing board for the US Treasury and the IMF — will they really come up with some new « architecture» this time, some­thing like going out of the global management business? Don't count on it.

3. A Dangerous Gun Show

As we listen to the post-Littleton debate on gun control, it's impossi­ble not to notice the enormous gap between the problem gun-control ad­vocates describe and what their proposals can be expected to deliver. Childproof gun locks, requiring instant checks of buyers from licensed dealers at gun shows, holding adults liable for letting children get guns — none of these would have stopped the Littleton murderers, who planned their crime and assembled their arsenal for a year and violated several existing laws in the process. These proposed new laws would make only a marginal difference. The gun controllers' rhetoric, decrying the large number of guns in the United States and pointing out that gun deaths are much lower in countries that ban guns, makes much more sense as an ar­gument for eliminating gun ownership altogether — which many gun controllers would like to do.

This misfit between problem and solution is typical of reformers,

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mostly liberal but some conservative. Gun-control advocates are not the only reformers whose solutions are tiny next to the problem they address and who ignore the practical difficulties of their unspoken agendas — while remaining uncurious about possible unanticipated consequences.

Consider advocates of the latest campaign finance bill, who decry the importance of money in politics and then propose new laws that will surely be evaded as previous laws have been. The problem is basic: In a big-government democracy, people will want to influence elections, out of idealism as well as self-interest, and they will spend money to do so. And they will be acting on a claim of right: the First Amendment. To which some campaign finance reformers respond: Get rid of the First Amendment. In March 1997, 38 senators voted to amend the First Amendment to allow campaign spending limits. Or as House Minority Leader Dick Gephardt put it: « What we have here is two important val­ues in direct conflict: freedom of speech and our desire for healthy cam­paigns in a healthy democracy. You can't have both.» The Framers disagreed.

There is little evidence that gun-control advocates have given much thought to the practical difficulties of a serious gun ban. For the fact is that while the media lavish attention on marginal changes in federal gun-control laws, the great source of successful reforms in the 1990s is the states, which have been passing laws allowing law-abiding citizens, after a background check, to carry concealed weapons. Today 31 states, with 50 per cent of the nation's population, have such laws. None of the nega­tive consequences predicted by gun controllers has come to pass. Instead, according to the most complete statistical study by University of Chicago economist John Lott, concealed-weapons laws have reduced crime. Citi­zens stop crimes 2 million times a year by brandishing guns, Lott writes, and criminals are deterred from attacking everybody because they know that a small number of intended victims will be armed. Lott's book, More Guns, Less Crime, presents a strong argument that more gun control would produce more crime.

Even if sweeping gun control did not have that unintended conse­quence, it would be fiendishly difficult to enforce. There are some 240 million guns in America, most of them owned by people with a claim of right. And not a frivolous claim. The intellectually serious debate is over how far the Second Amendment right extends: Congress can surely ban the possession of nuclear weapons and surely cannot ban all handguns and rifles; the Second Amendment blocks the road somewhere in be­tween. Earlier this month, former members of Congress Abner Mikva and Mickey Edwards, heads of a bipartisan committee, urged caution in pro­posing constitutional amendments, and they are surely right in urging avoidance of triviality. What do they have to say to the reformers who would repeal the heart of the First Amendment and ignore the Second?

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4. Down with the Death Penalty

The warrior and the executioner do similar jobs. Both kill the enemies of the state. But there the similarity ends. From time immemorial the war­rior has been feted and honoured. The public executioner, by contrast, has always had to lurk in the shadows, working anonymously or for a pit­tance. There is no glory in what he does.

That sense of discomfort and shame is why a growing number of countries have washed their hands off judicial execution. Today nearly all western democracies, as well as dozens of other countries, have aban­doned capital punishment. Most of the countries, which still use it with much frequency, such as China or Iran, are authoritarian states without independent legal systems.

The single most defiant — and most notable — exception to this trend is the United States. To the irritation of many of its allies, the American government regularly defends the death penalty in international forums, reflecting widespread support for capital punishment at home. Too often, death-penalty opponents have reacted to America's stubborn exception-alism on this issue with knee-jerk condemnation, or despair. Instead they should relish the chance to convert the world's most vigorous democracy to a saner policy. For they have a better case.

Three basic arguments are made for the death penalty: that it deters others, saves innocent lives by ensuring that murderers can never kill again, and inflicts on them the punishment they deserve. The first two, utilitarian arguments, do not stand up to scrutiny, while the moral claim for retribution, although naturally more difficult to refute, can be an­swered.

Despite voluminous academic studies of American executions and crime rates, there is no solid evidence that the death penalty is any more effective at deterring murder than long terms of imprisonment. This seems counter-intuitive. Surely death must deter someone. But the kinds of people who kill are rarely equipped, or in a proper emotional state, to make fine calculations about the consequences. Moreover, even for those who are, decades of imprisonment may be as great a deterrent as the re­mote prospect of execution. Although European countries have abolished the death penalty, their rates of violent crime have risen more slowly than crime overall. Indeed, their murder rates remain far below America's.

It is indisputable that executing a murderer guarantees that he cannot kill again, and this argument once carried considerable weight in societies that could not afford to imprison offenders for long periods. But today most countries, and especially America, can afford this. Opinion polls

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show that support for the death penalty among Americans drops sharply when life imprisonment without parole is the alternative. Executions are not needed to protect the public.

Against the dubious benefits of capital punishment must be weighed its undoubted drawbacks. It is a dangerous power to give any govern­ment, and has been grossly abused by many to kill political opponents and other inconvenient people under the colour of law. Even America, with all its legal guarantees and complex system of appeals, has not been able to apply it fairly or consistently. Worst of all, it is irrevocable. Mis­takes can never be rectified. America, like all countries, which use the death penalty, has executed innocents. This is too high a price to pay for an unnecessary punishment.

Where does this leave retribution? Some crimes are so heinous that a societal cost-benefit analysis hardly appears relevant. Death alone seems sufficient. And yet, as many relatives of murder victims have discovered, real retribution can never be achieved. For example, the only way to re­pay fully those who have committed multiple murder, or killed in a ghastly way, would be to torture them physically in turn, or to strive to make them endure repeatedly the torments of death. Modern societies have rightly turned away from such practices as barbaric, tempering their demands for retribution in recognition that tit-for-tat vengeance is beyond the reach of human justice. That is where the death penalty, too, belongs.

In 1976, after short lull, the court allowed executions to proceed again under redrafted state statutes. Since then it has frequently changed the rules, most recently restricting appeal avenues so as to shorten the time between conviction and execution, now averaging almost ten years. Even so, researchers still find inequities in how the death penalty is applied. Avoiding a death sentence depends a lot on having a good lawyer. Not surprisingly, rich, well-educated murderers rarely get a capital sentence. And the risk of executing the innocent remains very real. Since 1973, 78 people have been released from death row after evidence of their inno­cence emerged.

The attempt to apply the death penalty fairly has exhausted even some of its staunchest supporters on the bench. After retiring from the Supreme Court, Lewis Powell, the author of a landmark 1987 decision upholding Georgia's death penalty even in the face of an undisputed statistical study showing racial bias in its application, said that he regretted the decision and backed abolition.

America's stubborn retention of the death penalty is usually seen as the abolitionist movement's greatest defeat. And yet in the long term it may prove to be one of its greatest assets. If even America, with its com-

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plex legal guarantees and elaborate court system, cannot apply the death penalty fairly or avoid condemning the innocent, then do executions have a place in any society which values justice?

5. The end of privacy The Surveillance Society

« The right to be left alone.» For many this phrase, made famous by Louis Brandeis, an American Supreme Court justice, captures the essence of a notoriously slippery, but crucial concept. Drawing the boundaries of privacy has always been tricky. Most people have long accepted the need to provide some information about themselves in order to vote, work, shop, pursue a business, socialise or even borrow a library book. But ex­ercising control over who knows what about you has also come to be seen as an essential feature of a civilised society.

Totalitarian excesses have made «Big Brother» one of the 20^th cen­tury's most frightening bogeymen. Some right of privacy, however quali­fied, has been a major difference between democracies and dictatorships. An explicit right to privacy is now enshrined in scores of national Con­stitutions as well as in international human-rights treaties. Without the «right to be left alone,» to shut out on occasion the prying eyes and im­portunities of both government and society, other political and civil liber­ties seem fragile. Today most people in rich societies assume that, pro­vided they obey the law, they have a right to enjoy privacy whenever it suits them.

They are wrong. Despite a raft of laws, treaties and constitutional pro­visions, privacy has been eroded for decades. This trend is now likely to accelerate sharply. The cause is the same as that which alarmed Brandeis when he first popularised his phrase in an article in 1890: Technological change, in his day it was the spread of photography and cheap printing that posed the most immediate threat to privacy. In our day it is the com­puter. The quantity of information that is now available to governments and companies about individuals would have horrified Brandeis. But the power to gather and disseminate data electronically is growing so fast that it raises an even more unsettling question: in 20 years' time, will there be any privacy left to protect?

Most privacy debates concern media intrusion, which is also what bothered Brandeis. And yet the greatest threat to privacy today comes not from the media, whose antics affect few people, but from the mundane business of recording and collecting an ever-expanding number of every-

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day transactions. Most people know that information is collected about them, but are not certain how much. Many are puzzled or annoyed by un­solicited junk mail coming through their letter boxes. And yet junk mail is just the visible tip of an information iceberg. The volume of personal data in both commercial and government databases has grown by leaps and bounds in recent years along with advances in computer technology. The United States, perhaps the most computerised society in the world, is leading the way, but other countries are not far behind.

Advances in computing are having a twin effect. They are not only making it possible to collect information that once went largely unre­corded, but are also making it relatively easy to store, analyse and retrieve this information in ways which, until quite recently, were impossible.

Just consider the amount of information already being collected as a matter of routine — any spending that involves a credit or bank debit card, most financial transactions, telephone calls, all dealings with na­tional or local government. Supermarkets record every item being bought by customers who use discount cards. Mobile-phone companies are busy installing equipment that allows them to track the location of anyone who has a phone switched on. Electronic toll-booths and traffic-monitoring systems can record the movement of individual vehicles. Pioneered in Britain, closed-circuit TV cameras now scan increasingly large swathes of urban landscapes in other countries too. The trade in consumer infor­mation has hugely expanded in the past ten years. One single company, Acxiom Corporation in Conway, Arkansas, has a database combining public and consumer information that covers 95% of American house­holds. Is there anyone left on the planet who does not know that their use of the Internet is being recorded by somebody, somewhere?

Firms are as interested in their employees as in their customers. A 1997 survey by the American Management Association of 900 large companies found that nearly two-thirds admitted to some form of elec­tronic surveillance of their own workers. Powerful new software makes it easy for bosses to monitor and record not only all telephone conversa­tions, but every keystroke and e-mail message as well.

Information is power, so it is hardly surprising that governments are as keen as companies to use data-processing technology. They do this for many entirely legitimate reasons — tracking benefit claimants, delivering better health care, fighting crime, pursuing terrorists. But it inevitably means more government surveillance.

A controversial law passed in 1994 to aid law enforcement requires telecoms firms operating in America to install equipment that allows the government to intercept and monitor all telephone and data communica-

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tions, although disputes between the firms and the FBI have delayed its implementation. Intelligence agencies from America, Britain, Canada, Australia and New Zealand jointly monitor all international satellite-telecommunications traffic via a system called « Echelon» that can pick specific words or phrases from hundreds of thousands of messages.

6. «Call to Arms»

New York — Two cheers for the Chief Justice who told the American Bar Association the other day that defense against crime was as vital to national security as «the budget of the Pentagon». In fact, it's probably of more immediate concern to most Americans.

With no empty blasts about «getting tough», he said many other things that needed to be said — for example, that the great cost of lower­ing crime rates would be less «than the billions in dollars and thousands of blighted lives now hostage to crime». Nor is this an elitist view, since crime afflicts «the poor and minorities even more than the affluent».

We need the undoubted deterrence of « swift arrest, prompt trial, cer­tain penalty, and — at some point — finality of Judgment». And to mount a real attack on crime will demand «more money than we have ever before devoted to law enforcement», as well as much rethinking of what law enforcement should be.

Still, on such a complex and emotional subject, the chief justice in­evitably raised more questions than he provided answers. It's true that crime will not disappear «if we but abolish poverty». But it's more im­portant that poverty and inequity and lack of economic opportunity breed crime, particularly when exacerbated by racial animosities, as in the United States. And where so much poverty exists in such proximity to so much affluence, the crime-breeding effect is likely to be greater.

The chief justice's specific proposals, moreover, will not be easy to ef­fect, even when their validity is accepted. Trial «within weeks of arrest» is highly desirable, but where are hard-pressed cities like Cleveland and New York to find the money for the needed judges, prosecutors, police officers? And in most such cities, by far the most cases are now disposed of by plea bargaining rather than by trial.

He also proposed empowering judges to hold arrested persons without bail when «a combination of the particular crime and past record» makes it likely that the defendant will commit another crime while awaiting trial.

His argument for limiting the scope of appellate review of criminal convictions to «genuine claims of miscarriage of justice, and not a quest I

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for error» also rests on judges' questionable ability to tell one from the other.

Unlike many reformers, the speaker knows that his proposals, if car­ried out, would send many more people to prison. He also understands that to send them to the overcrowded, underfunded, inadequately staffed and policed prisons of the United States would negate his purpose; be­cause more, and more frightening, criminals come out of these schools of crime and violence than go into them.

That is why he proposes prison reforms. He wants prisons to provide mandatory educational and vocational programs designed to «cure» in­mates who would be released with at least a basic education.

And what good are the basic skills the Chief Justice wants to give in­mates when they return to a society largely unwilling to hire them — par­ticularly blacks or Hispanic people with a record of violence — and an economy with a declining need for low-skill labor?

Deterrence of crime — particularly speedy trial and certain punish­ment — is vitally needed. How best to achieve it is a subject on which thoughtful and honorable persons disagree — and on which has usefully dramatized, not settled the debate.

7. Democracy is on the March

If there has been a single, recurring theme in western foreign policy-speak since the cold war, it has been the promotion of liberal democracy — not just multy-party politics, but all the things that underpin it, such as the rule of the law, respect for property rights and the absence of police re­pression. Movement in this direction was assumed not just to be desirable but inevitable; the main challenge for policy makers was to hurry it along.

People may concede that Francis Fukuyama, America's guru of geo­political optimism, was going a bit too far when — after the collapse of undemocratic regimes in the Soviet Union and South Africa — he pro­claimed the end of history. But a milder version of his thesis has passed into conventional wisdom. Wherever brutish regimes persist in torturing, expropriating or otherwise silencing their enemies, the West grits its teeth and says that « progress» towards the Promised Land of liberal democ­racy has been surprisingly slow.

But what if no such «progress» can be assumed at all? Although the number of governments formally committed to democracy may be in­creasing, Freedom House, an American think-tank that measures political liberty by a sophisticated range of indicators, reckons that only 39% of the world's population now enjoys real political freedom — hardly a

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massive leap forward from the 36% enjoying it in 1983. And even that slow rate of increase cannot necessarily be relied on. The think-tank notes «growing evidence that the wave of democratisation that began in the 1970s may have crested and... be receding.»

Looking round the world, democracy seems well enough entrenched in Latin America, even if some of its concomitants, such as clean gover-ment and due process, are not. In Asia, it is too soon to tell whether the economic crisis will embolden or weaken those who argue that « Asian values» are an excuse for authoritarianism. But elsewhere there are good reasons to fear that western political values will retreat in the near term.

Democratic institutions are hard to build, and easy to topple when not yet completed. Take the Middle East, where liberal democracy has never been in fashion. As they struggle to cope with demographic explosions and various forms of revolutionary dissent, many regimes will have to choose between being «liberal» — in other words, being secular and modernist about things like education and gender — and being demo­cratic. The latter would entail yielding power to radicals or fundamental­ists; they may, in turn give some or all of it back to the people, but it is hardly a sure thing in the short run.

Algeria is only the most extreme example of a country where unbri­dled democracy would assuredly bring fundamentalists to power and is therefore regarded, both by its own government and many western ones, as a dispensable luxury. To stay in office, other «moderate» Arab gov­ernments — from North Africa to the West Bank will resort to increas­ingly ruthless methods: using secret services to infiltrate, divide and crush opposition movements that might otherwise be unstoppable.

What about the former Soviet Union, where some of the most euphoric pro-democracy rhetoric was once heard? In the southern repub­lics, rulers who held senior positions under communism have used the flimsiest sort of democratic window-dressing to ensure that they remain in office indefinitely. In Russia, the outward forms of multi-party politics and constitutional procedure have proved more robust; but the culture of democracy runs shallow.

And what about Africa, where a spectacular revival of multi-party democracy seemed to reach its peak around 1994? Across a wide swathe of the continent, from Angola to Eritrea, issues of political procedure are overwhelmed by war.

There are still two huge countries — Nigeria and Indonesia — where the near-term trend is towards more political freedom. But both countries face a profound challenge: is it possible for states with vast, diverse populations and acute economic difficulties to go on existing at all, let

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alone existing democratically? To have a democratic future — which means learning to disagree amicably about particular issues — people in these countries need to develop a much stronger consensus about funda­mental issues: state borders, the constitution, property rights and intangi­bles like national identity. And in Lagos and Jakarta, as well as Moscow and New Delhi, the rules and would-rules are faced with a fraying of con­sensus, not a consolidation.

8. When the snarling's over

The post-cold-war solitary American superpower, say many Europe­ans, has to be held in check, lest it create an unacceptably Americanised world. The mighty dollar needs to be balanced by the gallant young euro. The spread of American popular culture must be slowed, even if it is popular outside America too.

What many of these Europeans do not realise is that their grumblings are drowned by the growlings of frustrated Americans.

The arthritic economy of continental Europe, say angry Americans, leaves it to them to bear most of the burden of helping recession-hit Asia and Latin America, by buying more imports from these regions and thereby making their own trade deficit even worse. The European Union, though richer than the United States, provides a tiny and diminishing pro­portion of the high-tech military equipment that NATO depends on if it is to be able to fight wars without an intolerable number of casualties. Now that Europe no longer has to worry about Hitler's Germany or a commu­nist Russia, conclude these exasperated Americans, Europe can be left to its own devices. « Deep structural forces», says Stephen Walt in the cur­rent issue of the National Interest, are «beginning to pull Europe and America apart.»

In fact, the sky is not quite that black. The expansion of NATO goes ahead.

Nevertheless, the gloomsters could yet prove right. The Atlantic alli­ance may indeed collapse, unless both Europeans and Americans look forward rather than backward: unless they base their plans not on memo­ries of the past 50 years but on a reasonable calculation of what the next 50 years will bring.

If the United States were indeed going to remain the world's only great power as far ahead as the eye can see, people believe in the danger of monopoly and the need for competition would draw the necessary con­clusion: Europe should provide a counterbalance to this overwhelming American power. But that is not in fact what the future really holds. If the

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European part of NATO raises its eyes beyond its own borders, and sees what will probably happen out there in the next generation or so, it will understand why it still needs America and — even more important — why America increasingly needs Europe.

The one-superpower world will not last. Within the next couple of decades a China with up to 1 14 billion people, a strongly growing econ­omy and probably a still authoritarian government will almost certainly be trying to push its interests eastward into the Pacific and westward into Central Asia, whose oil and gas this energy-poor China will badly need. Sooner or later some strong and honest man will pull post-Yeltsin Russia together, and another contender for global influence will have reappeared on the scene (unless fear of China sends a horrified Russia running into NATO's arms). The Islamist superpower that nervous people predicted a few years ago will probably never come into being, but the Muslim world will certainly continue to produce localised explosions of ideological wrath and geopolitical envy.

This is why the alliance of the democracies needs not only new mem­bers but also a new purpose. The alliance can no longer be just a protec­tive American arm around Europe's shoulder; it also has to be a way for Europe and America to work together in other parts of the world. And those who hope to construct a politically united Europe should recognise that this must be done — if it can be done at all — in partnership with America, not to separate Europe from America.

9. They have seen the future, and they aren't very interested

Lucky Hong Kong. Its citizens have access to the Internet «in a more powerful form than 99% of users in the world», marvels Microsoft's Bill Gates. Last year Hong-Kong Telecom launched the first commercial in­teractive television (ITV) service in the world, offering video and music on demand, along with high-speed Internet access, to 70% of the city's homes. Mr Gates was impressed enough to fly in and announce that this network would become the chief testbed of Microsoft's efforts to merge the television and the PC, allowing users to gain access to broadcast-quality movies, PC games and pay-per-use software from the network nearly as quickly as from their own hard drives.

Mr Gate's presence threw Hong Kong into a technotizzy as the gov­ernment announced a lot of Singapore-rivalling projects, from a $1.6 bil­lion «cyberport» to efforts to make Hong Kong the region's e-commerce

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hub. But the city's planners do not seem to have noticed that the Micro­soft deal is better evidence of the service's problems than of its potential.

Ever since ITV was first put together in the early 1990s, virtually every trial has shown that viewers are not keen enough on video-on-demand to pay the cost of receiving it. Hong Kong reckoned it was dif­ferent: its 6m relatively affluent and gadget-mad people are packed tightly into easy-to-wire apartment buildings, most within a few miles of Hong Kong Telecom's video servers. When the company launched the service last March, it predicted that it would have 250,000 subscribers by the end of March this year, paying an average of around $50 a month. Instead, it has only 80.000 subscribers, paying an average of $35 each, less than half of what it costs to provide the service.

It seems that although Hong Kong may be a uniquely cheap place to roll out a commercial broadband network to the home, its people are all too typical of guinea pigs everywhere: unimpressed.

Like others who have dipped their toes in the ITV waters only to have them bitten off, the firm now acknowledges that movies, music, even in­teractive karaoke and horse racing are not enough: it still needs the elu­sive « killer application». This is where Microsoft comes in.

Today, Hongkong Teleco's broad-band service offers two options, each inadequate in its own way. The service on television does not offer e-mail or PC-quality games, while the high-speed Internet service pro­vided to PCs does not offer movies. Microsoft hopes to solve the problem by fixing the limitation in the PC service.

This would be more exciting were it not for an uncomfortable parallel in Singapore, Hong Kong's smaller wired-island rival. Around the same time Hong Kong telecoms was launching its television-based service, Singapore was rolling out its own broadband network, called Singapore ONE, based on PCs. It has been even less successful, with just 14.000 subscribers, and its video-on-demand part, Magix, has struggled. «Most people just don't want to watch movies on their PC,» explains a spokes­man. So Singapore Telecom is now thinking about taking the service over to television, just as Hongkong Telecom appears to be moving in the op­posite direction.

Hongkong Telecom has compounded its problems with a big strategic mistake. It chose to make the service available to lower-income apartment complexes first, because they are more tightly packed and thus cheaper to reach, and because lower social classes tend to watch more television. Since those households were also targeted by the city's cable-TV pro­vider, they already have as much television as they want. Worse, many

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higher-income consumers, who tend to be more spread out, cannot get the service yet.

Of course, any new technology takes time to establish itself, and tele­phone companies are not the obvious choice to package and market en­tertainment and information. But Asians are normally enthusiastic early-adopters of the latest gizmo. Western executives thrilled by the vision of an interactive future should note the apathy in Hong Kong, and beware.

10. Backwards and forwards in China

Much of the outside world believes China's reform programme has been slammed into reverse by the East-Asian financial crises. But in some respects it has sped things up. The direct economic costs of the region's problems are not the issue. Despite doubts about the accuracy of last year's GDP growth of 7.8%, China is far from being in recession, unlike many of its neighbours. Certainly, China's exports will be badly hit this year, and previous high levels of foreign investment will fall. Yet the ex­port sector remains relatively small. It is China's domestic economy that counts, and this is shielded from external shocks by a largely non-convertible currency.

The impact of the regional crisis has more to do with expectations. A belated recognition by China's leaders that the corporate models of Japan and (particularly) South Korea are now bankrupt marks a profound change. China, most of its rulers now admit, can no longer simply count on state-guided growth to get out of trouble. Even though few, if any, yet believe in outright privatisation the consensus at the top is that much more reform is needed.

Hence the urgency of recent policies that aim to get the state out of business. Some of the most powerful bureaucracies, such as the Ministry of Information Industry and the Ministry of Communications, have had their business wings clipped. Indeed, the total number of ministries has been shrunk by a quarter. The armed forces, deeply involved in business, were given until the end of last year to quit commerce.

China's legions of small and medium-sized state enterprises have been told to fend for themselves. Many of them have stopped receiving state funds. Many have been merged or «privatised» in all but name. Almost all of them have been sacking workers, or sending them home on unpaid leave. Remaining workers have been put on notice that they will have to pay higher rents or buy their homes. Medical costs will rise.

Policymakers also admit to the dangers in the financial system. The People's Bank of China has been restructured along regional lines. The

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hope is that local barons will no longer be able to bully local central-bank officials into providing ill-judged credit. Finally, state banks have been « ordered» to lend according to strictly commercial criteria and to private companies.

The goverment says it wants to spur the development of consumer credit, for which there will be a great appetite. And it is determined to crack down on the welter of arbitrary fees and taxes imposed by local party bosses on farmers and on people living in small towns. This is probably the chief source of sporadic unrest in the provinces.

The trouble is, once the stimulus money is spent, there will be a fur­ther pile of shoddy infrastructure projects, redundant factories and unre­coverable loans to show for it. And all the while, the government's bill — for the banks' bad debts, for social-welfare costs and for the stimulus pack­age — will continue to mount as China takes two steps forward and one back.

11. Talking peace, preparing for war

Time supposedly waits for no man, not even an American politician. So in an ideal world the House and Senate would present an agreed pro­posal for next year's budget by the statutory deadline of April 15^th. There would then be good-humoured, well-intentioned debate with the admini­stration and, just in time for the fiscal year, beginning this October 1^st , the country would know exactly how much its federal government was going to spend, and how it was going to raise the money.

So much for the ideal. The reality is that the election cycle is inexora­bly turning and catching President proposed $1.8 trillion budget in its spokes. In other words, for all the promises of bipartisanship, for all the determination of the speaker of the House (where all spending bills origi­nate) to make the trains run on time, Republicans and Democrats are still at odds.

Moreover, both parties have their squabbling factions, and everybody knows that legislative deadlines can come and go without everyone nec­essarily dying. The April deadline, for example, has been met only three times since 1975; and last year, thanks to the electorally mistaken obdu­racy of the tax-cutting zealots among the House Republicans, Congress failed for the first time in 24 years to pass a budget resolution even after the deadline.

Political deadlines are another matter. In just under a year from now the primary season — for a new president and a new Congress — will

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come into bloom. To be ready for that season, all candidates need to start raising money now. That in turn means they must be careful in what they do and say in this political cycle.

The worst problems are for the Republicans. With a budget surplus now expected by the Congressional Budget Office to be around $133 bil­lion, the party's instinct is to return the excess to «hard-working Ameri­cans» in the form of a tax cut. But tax is low on most people's list of con­cerns (even though the right-wing Heritage Foundation points out that this year's federal tax take, 20.5% of economic output, is the highest peacetime level ever), whereas saving Social Security is close to the top. So House and Senate Republicans agreed last week to a plan from the Senate Budget Committee: taxes would be cut by up to $900 billion over the next decade, but the cuts would not be taken from the surpluses in the Social Security trust fund.

The plan neatly blunts the Democrats' charge that Republican tax cuts would be at the expense of Social Security. But since next year's overall surplus is expected to be mostly, if not entirely, accounted for by the So­cial Security surplus, it also means tax cuts later rather than sooner — which is not what the Republican faithful really want.

Meanwhile, the party risks looking mean to the electorate in its pro­fessed determination to keep the budget within the spending caps agreed in the balanced budget legislation.

Last year Congress approved an omnibus spending bill that broke through the caps to the tune of $21 billion — which was conveniently deemed «emergency» spending outside the law's scope. Doubtless the same will happen this year (the President's budget proposals, even with the most favourable arithmetic, will break the caps by at least $18 billion) unless the ceiling is raised. Given bipartisan enthusiasm for more spend­ing on education and the armed forces, that would seem a plausible solu­tion, but one that will annoy Republican conservatives, involve haggling over other spending programmes, and strain the unity of the Republicans' six-seat majority in the House.

All this highlights the perennial Republican rift between ideologues and pragmatists, and leaves the Democrats chortling at the prospect of re­gaining the House and even the Senate. But not all Democrats are en­couraged. The triumph of the current presidency was the triumph of the «New Democrats», adopting Republican notions of fiscal responsibility. Yet the administration's travails over illicit campaign finances have made it more dependent on «old Democrats», notably organised labour and minorities.

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And in the meantime? With the Republicans trying hard to avoid the label of another « do-nothing Congress», optimists have trailed the notion of bipartisan cooperation on Social Security, education, defence and health-care. Some hope. This week a supposedly bipartisan position on federal aid to the states for education fractured into partisan wrangling, and there will be more of the same. After all, because gridlock in Con­gress hurts the Republicans, it helps the Democrats.

But that is a zero-sum game for now, not the future. One well-known Democratic strategist, speaking sensibly off the record sees only a Pyrrhic victory ahead: a protectionist-inclined Democratic Party with outdated regulatory instincts that will trap minorities in poverty.

12. Schooling and the New Illiteracy

Recent developments in higher education have progressively diluted its content and reproduced, at a higher level, the conditions that prevail in the public schools. The collapse of general education; the abolition of any serious effort to instruct students in foreign languages; the introduction of many programs in black studies, women's studies, and other forms of consciousness raising for no other purpose than to head off political dis­content; the ubiquitous inflation of grades — all have lowered the value of a university education at the same time that rising tuitions place it be­yond reach of all but the affluent...

What precipitated the crisis of the sixties was not simply the pressure of unprecedented numbers of students (many of whom would gladly have spent their youth elsewhere) but a fatal conjuncture of historical changes: the emergence of a new social conscience among students activated by the moral rhetoric of the New Frontier and by the civil rights movement, and the simultaneous collapse of the university's claims to moral and in­tellectual legitimacy. Instead of offering a rounded program of humane learning, the university now frankly served as a cafeteria from which stu­dents had to select so many « credits». Instead of diffusing peace and en­lightenment, it allied itself with the war machine. Eventually, even its claim to provide better jobs became suspect...

At the same time, the student movement embodied a militant anti-intellectualism of its own, which corrupted and eventually absorbed it. Demand for the abolition of grades, although defended on grounds of high pedagogical principle, turned out in practice — as revealed by ex­periments with ungraded courses and pass-fail options — to reflect a de­sire for less work and a wish to avoid judgment on its quality. The de-

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mand for more «relevant» courses often boiled down to a desire for an intellectually undemanding curriculum, in which students could win aca­demic credits for political activism, self-expression, transcendental medi­tation, encounter therapy, and the study and practice of witchcraft. Even when seriously advanced in opposition to sterile academic pedantry, the slogan of relevance embodied an underlying antagonism to education it­self— an inability to take an interest in anything beyond immediate expe­rience...

In the seventies, the most common criticism of higher education re­volves around the charge of cultural elitism... Two contributors to a Carnegie Commission report on education condemn the idea that «there are certain works that should be familiar to all educated men» as inher­ently an «elitist notion.» ... The Carnegie Commission contributors argue that since the United States is a pluralist society, «adherence exclusively to the doctrines of any one school... would cause higher education to be in great dissonance with society.»

Given the prevalence of these attitudes among teachers and educators, it is not surprising that students at all levels of the educational system have so little knowledge of the classics of world literature ...

Those who teach college today see at first hand the effect of these practices, not merely in the students' reduced ability to read and write but in the diminished store of their knowledge about the cultural traditions they are supposed to inherit. With the collapse of religion, biblical refer­ences, which formerly penetrated deep into everyday awareness, have be­come incomprehensible, and the same thing is now happening to the lit­erature and mythology of antiquity — indeed, to the entire literary tradi­tion of the West, which has always drawn so heavily on biblical and clas­sical sources. In the space of two or three generations, enormous stretches of the « Judeo-Christian tradition,» so often invoked by educators but so seldom taught in any form, have passed into oblivion. The effective loss of cultural traditions on such a scale makes talk of a new Dark Age far from frivolous. Yet this loss coincides with an information glut, with the recovery of the past by specialists, and with an unprecedented explosion of knowledge — none of which, however, impinges on everyday experi­ence or shapes popular culture.

The resulting split between general knowledge and the specialized knowledge of the experts, embedded in obscure journals and written in language or mathematical symbols unintelligible to the layman, has given rise to a growing body of criticism and exhortation. The ideal of general education in the university, however, has suffered the same fate as basic

education in the lower schools. Even those college teachers who praise general education in theory find that its practice drains energy from their specialized research and thus interferes with academic advancement. Administrators have little use for general education, since it does not at­tract foundation grants and large-scale government support. Students ob­ject to the reintroduction of requirements in general education because the work demands too much of them and seldom leads to lucrative employ­ment.

Under these conditions, the university remains a diffuse, shapeless, and permissive institution that has absorbed the major currents of cultural modernism and reduced them to a watery blend, a mind-emptying ideol­ogy of cultural revolution, personal fulfillment, and creative alienation.

КЛЮЧИ

К УСТАНОВОЧНЫМ УПРАЖНЕНИЯМ ЧАСТИ I

§ 1. Инфинитив

I. Инфинитив

1... которое защитит...; 2... которые будут запущены...; 13... чтобы включать...; 14... по ознакомлению...; 15... по сбору...; 19... настоль­ко, чтобы ослабить...; 24... не первый..., кто вступает в должность...; 38... и увидел...; 39... и сам оказался жертвой...; 41... неизбежно (обязательно) будут признаны...; 44... неспособность достичь согла­сия...; 46... не добились успеха...; 50. Начать с того, что (во-первых)...; 52 Если судить о... /оценивать...;

II. Инфинитивные конструкции

1. ...ожидается (предполагается), что...; 4. По всей вероятности (вероятно)...; 13. ... по имеющимся сведениям...; 25. ..., который, как считают, якобы...; 31. ...по-видимому, стала...; 41. Кажется, что...; 67. ...слышать, как...; 69. ...ожидали (предполагали), что... будут от­ложены...; 74. ...заставить... внести...; 85. ...убедить... принять...; 88. ...призывает... чтобы она стала...; 91. ...вопрос, который будет решать Парламент; 93. ... , чтобы сторонники реформ добились...; 108...., а (причем) еще несколько сотен человек будут освобождены...

§ 2. Герундий I. Герундий в различных функциях

I. До начала работы над...; 3 ...после того, как...; 4. ...после того,
как (проведя большую часть времени...); 5. По прибытии (прибыв)...;
7. ...в формировании...; 10. ...на расширение...; 12. ...путем (за счет)
стимулирования... , заставляя...; 13. Не сумев придти к согласию...;
17. ... в нарушение..., подавая... как; 24. ... , не имея даже права быть
проинформированным...; 26. ...попытками заставить... ; 27. ...не ви­
дя...; 42 чтобы не платить...; 43. ...борьбу с... , развитие..., спон­
сорство...; 64. Вместо того, чтобы...

II. Герундиальный комплекс

1. ...о японцах, отказывающихся открыто признать свою вину...; 2. ... , что начальник местного отделения ЦРУ предупредил, что...; 7. ...вместо того, чтобы импортер вынужден был доказывать, что...; 14. ..., вместо какого-либо улучшения... ; 19. ...силы беспорядка дол­жна распространиться на (захватить)...

§ 3. Причастие

Причастие в различных функциях

1. ... , восстанавливающий...; 5. ...наконец, признав, что...; 8. ...предложенного налогообложения...; 9. ...взятый на работу (при­глашенный)...; 10. ... , проводимому ...; 18. Давно считая...; 25. От­крывая...; 33. Даже принимая во внимание (учитывая)...

Причастные конструкции

48. Им нужно было правительство, выбранное...; 49. ...увидели, что их усилия были напрасны...; 51. ...хотели, чтобы... были выве­дены...; 57. ...увеличивают свой... доход... за счет...

Абсолютная причастная конструкция

1.Когда...; 2. Так как...; 4. ... поскольку; 18. ..., при этом...; 20. ..., причем...; 34. ..., что объясняется...; 39. ..., в обстановке, когда... .

Причастия в функции союзов и предлогов

1. ...при условии...; 6. Если принять во внимание (учитывая)...;

8. при наличии (если предположить наличие)...; 10. ...после...; 16. ...учитывая (в свете)...; 20. Из-за отсутствия...; 22. ... , но не га­рантируя...; 23. До (в ожидании)...; 29. ... , что касается (относитель­но, в отношении)...

§ 4. Страдательный залог

1. ...осуществляется...; 2. ...многие в Европе не любят...; 5. Споры идут о...; 8. Политическая оппозиция и... отвергли...; 10. ...подверг­лись критике (стали предметом критики)...; 12. ... , к которым при­бегали, чтобы...; 16. После него остались два сына. 19. ...ими управ­ляют...; 31. ...сейчас рассматриваются...; 36. ...большинство китайцев на нем не говорят...

§ 5. Сослагательное наклонение

1. ...возросли бы, если бы они увеличили..., было бы перекрыто...; 2. Было бы...; 8. если бы не было..., счел бы необходимым...; 10. ...не продержалась бы..., если бы... не было возможности...; 11. ... , если бы не... могла бы быть...; 21. Если (вдруг, почему-либо), то... конеч­но смягчило бы...; 27. ...никогда бы не решились (не посмели)...; 31.... , если бы и сейчас продолжалась, то... мог бы быть...; 36. Если бы не..., было бы невозможно...

§ 6. Модальные и вспомогательные глаголы

Should

1. ...должны...; 2. ...следует (должны); 14. Важно рассмотреть...; 15. Странно, что... выбрал...; 16. Не случайно, что... выражают...; 18. правильно ли, что фермерство берет на себя...; 20. Они настаи­вают на изложении...; 23. ...настоял на том, чтобы Тори отказа­лись...; 24. ...рекомендовал поднять...; 28. ...предлагают ограни­чить...; 29. ...предложение предупредить... ; 30. ...требует... осоз­нать...; 32. ...чтобы... не было оправданием...

Can, May, Might; Must

1. ...не может...; 3. ...может... может...; 5. ...может быть и может...; 6. ...должен...; 12. ...могла бы и должна была...; 13. ...мог бы быть...; 17. ...возможно (может быть)...; 18. ...возможно, придется...;

19. ...возможно, уже произойдут...; 23. ...возможно, уже достигла...; 38. Возможно, он понял...; 48. ...вполне может...; 60. ...наверняка (по всей вероятности) был...

То Be

1. должно было (планировалось)...; 5. ...должен был...; 6. ... , что­бы имели...; 7. ... , если мы хотим, чтобы...; 8. ... , чтобы кто-нибудь или что-нибудь выжило (осталось на плаву)...; 9. ..., если оно (госу­дарство) хочет...; 26. их первоочередная задача — покончить с...

То Have

1. ...придется...; 4. ...вынужден...; 11. ...неизбежно будут...; 15. ...хотят, чтобы был найден выход из тупика...; 16. ...обеспечить, чтобы все ехали...; 17. ... , на основе которой Ассамблея обратится к...; 19. ...эта Комиссия получит гарантии своей независимости и по­вышения профессионализма. 23. ...вернули (не приняли)...

То Do

1. ...сделал..., сделать..., все-таки сделал..., таки сделал...; 2. ...все-таки...; 3. ...действительно... ; 9. ...все-таки...; 15. ...не только не...; 17. ...также растет и...; 18.... зависели (раньше); 19. ...стоила...

§ 7. Артикль

1. этот (представленный)...; 3. ...существующим (широко распро­страненным)...; 6. ...нынешние... ; 12. ...Депрессии 30-х гг. ...; 17. ...своего рода...; 20. ...некоторого...; 21. ...такому миру, в кото­ром...; 23. ...предложило ввести...; 24. ...в Персидском заливе... объя­вили о создании...; 25. ...планируют провести...; 45. В спор по вопро­су национальностей вступил лидер немецких евреев, который...; 47. В Тайпее в ближайшее время ожидается прибытие... делегации (группы) для переговоров; 51. Вскоре Бразилию посетит группа (экспертов) МВФ для...; 54. Мало какие болезни...; 60. ...не достигло каких-либо целей...; 62. ...система (аппарат) управления (страной)...; 63.... такое правительство, которое...

§ 8. Четырехчленная каузативная конструкция

1. ...силой заставило его сделать...; 2. ...принуждать... предостав­лять...; 6. ...уговорили... отказаться от активных действий...; 9. ...подтолкнули... к действиям...; 11. ...обмануть... и поверить...; 21. ...запугать... и заставить проголосовать...; 23. ...объединить... в...; 24. ...в провоцировании... на...

§ 9. Различные функции слов It, One, That It

1. Это сделало более вероятным...; 2. ... , что компания...;

4. ...Иран..., страна...; 5. Суд считает практически невозможным...;
8.... дали понять...; 11. Именно роль...; 13. Как раз (именно) тогда...;
17. Только...; 19. Каково...; 21. Если будет успех — его никогда не
забудут; если неудача — нам никогда не простят...; 24. Только по­
сле...

One

1. Если есть чувство (понимание)..., то нужно признать, что...; 2. ...того, кто...; 3. ...именно тот, кто...; 9. ...существующий...

That

1. ... , что... те, кто...; 4. ... , чтобы...; 6. ... , что... и что... , кото­рое...; 7. ... , который...; 21. Для тех немногих, которые... , которая... та, которая...; 22. ...с тем, чтобы...; 23. Но это...; 25. То, что...; 29. ...теперь, когда...; 31. И дело не в том, что... . А в том, что...

§ 10. Многозначные и трудные для перевода слова

Существительные и прилагательные

1. ... державы...; 2. ...полномочия...; 3. ...разграничение властей...;

5. ...власти...; 6. ...держава статус кво...\ 12. ...судебный иск (де­
ло)...; 13. ...вопрос...; 14. ...в случае с... 15. ...испытательный полигон
(проверочная модель)...; 16. В любом случае...; 17. ...как было (дело)
и с...; 18. ... , но это не так...; 25. ...поставить рекорд...; 26. ...послуж­
ной список...; 27. ...известно, что (имеет репутацию)...; 32. ...положе­
ние дел (факты) с...; 34. ...данных, что...; 36. ...отчеты...; 38. ...схе­
ма...; 39. ...пути...; 41. ...модели...; 42. ...баллотироваться на долж­
ность...; 43. ...обязанности, которые на них возложены...; 44. ...у вла-

сти...; 46. ...условия...; 48. ...предприятия... ; 51. ...финансовые кру­ги...; 53. ...населенного пункта...; 54. ...государственные финансы...; 55. ...открытым, публичный, государственные, общество (народ); 59. ...петицию общественности...; 62. ...общедоступны..., открыто, общество (население, граждане)... .

Служебные слова

1. ...так как...; 3. ...с тех пор...; 9. ...хотя...; 10. ...в то время как...; 13. ...а...; 17. Оказывая давление для получения...; 20. ..., так как...; 22. ...для...; 26. ...положить конец...; 27. Для...; 33. ...в течение какого-то времени...; 35. ...несмотря на...; 36. ...как..., как...; 37. ...в качест­ве...; 38. ...так как...; 39. В то время как...; 40. ...по мере того, как...; 42. ...хотя (несмотря на то, что)...; 43. Еще в...; 44. ...когда...; 47. ...так же..., как и...; 49. Как бы он ни хотел...; 50. хотя и...; 51. Что касает­ся...; 60. ...Что касается...; 61. ...не только к убийцам, но и к постав­щикам наркотиков и насильникам. 70. ...в такой же степени, как...; 72. ...ничем иным, как...; 73. ...лишь для небольшого числа...; 74. ...Но... лишь...; 75. ...как...; 76. ...не можем не вспомнить...; 82. ...чем угодно, только не...; 83. Как только...; 84. Когда-то...; 88. Наконец-то...; 90. ...значительно ниже...; 91. ...настолько же хо­рошо...; 92. ..., но сам характер (деятельности) ЕС.

§ 12. Эллиптические конструкции

1. ...практически нет (очень мало) признаков...; 2. ...как ни стран­но...; 3. ... , что вообще (привез или нет)...; 4. ...прежде всего (во-первых)...; 5. ..., если и извлекли урок, то он заключается в том, что...; 7. ... , если оставить без изменений (без внимания)...; 8. ... , ес­ли вообще когда-нибудь...; 13. ... , каковыми бы ни были...; 20. ...бу­дучи (хотя и более) эффектным...; 21. ...хотя бы в силу (по причи­не)...

§ 13. Препозитивные атрибутивные словосочетания

1. ...резолюцию Сената США, ...нарушения прав человека в Ки­тае, ...; 2. ...четырехдневный тур по четырем странам...; 4. ...портфе­ли заказов и атмосфера уверенности в промышленности...; 13. ...сокращения заработной платы и средств пенсионных фондов, ...ранее осуществленные меры по сокращению расходов...;

19. ...растущий молодой средний класс страны..., баланс проб и ошибок...; 20. Программа ООН по контролю за наркотиками...; 31. ...пакет мер по оказанию экономической помощи...; 34. ...надеж­ный, доступный уход (присмотр) за детьми..., поддерживаемые пра­вительством районные центры по дневному уходу (присмотру) за детьми; 48. ...городскими магистратами, в которых большинство членов-предствителей Лейбористской партии. 52. ...общество вседо­зволенности, хаоса и распущенности (нравов).; 56. ...финансируемых государством программ по предоставлению пособий безработным для безработных, не занятых в течение короткого периода време­ни...; 67. ...рекордный доход и данные по продажам... , доход после вычета налогов...; 69. ...фигур Роденовских мыслителей..., горячими головами, борцами со всем и вся, выступающими против всего, что предлагается и...

§ 14. Неологизмы

1. ...сдерживающим фактором (центром), сдерживающим инст­рументом (средством)...; 5. ...трюк...; 6. ...вернувшимся людям...; П....отмены регулирования (контроля)...; 15. ...разрастись...; 17. ...дать «добро» на...; 18. ...перевод предприятий в другие рай­оны...; 19. ...сторонников партии «зеленых»...; 20. ...экологически чистые...; 21. ...политика «переподания крох» (с барского стола)...; 24. ...теория экономического развития, ориентированного на «пред­ложение»...; 33. ...группы «бритоголовых»... , журналы «бритоголо­вых»; 55. ...создание гетто...; 59. Язык, используемый в ЕС...; 62. ...фото-дипломатия...; 64. манипуляторы общественным мнени­ем...; 71. ...язык политической корректности...; 73. ...активисты, вы­ступающие за решение одной конкретной проблемы...; 76. ...удоб­ные для (удовлетворяющие интересы) пользователя...; 78. ...передача (делегирование) власти сверху вниз (на места)...; 82. ...уход от ре­ального мира.

§ 15. Интернациональная

и псевдоинтернациональная лексика.

«Ложные друзья переводчика».

1. ...важное...; 3. ...драматичную...; 5. ...широко распространен­ная...; 7. ...народной...; 9. ...официально...; 11. ...различие между де­мократическими государствами и диктатурами (государствами с

диктаторскими режимами)...; 18. ...разногласия...; 20. ...военные от­расли промышленности...; 22. ...событиями...; 23. ...развитие...; 34. ...десятилетие ...конкретные...; 35. ...необъективный (предвзя­тый)...; 38. ...межпартийная ...; 39. ...сторонник партии «зеленых» и... , не принадлежащий ни к какой партии...; 41. ...партизаны...; 43. ...заинтересованные круги...; 46. чиновники...; 49. ...сторонни­ки...; 54. ...законные...; 55. ...обучение... , грамотными...; 56. ...учеб­ного...; 57. ...(учебный) зачет...; 60. ...стенографический отчет засе­дания...; 61. ...движущая сила.