итоговая аттестация. ИТОГОВАЯ АТТЕСТАЦИЯ. Итоговая аттестация
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Explain the difference between deictic and taxic characteristics of a situation. Define the quantitative and the linear type of verb aspect? Deictic expressions are based on the idea of identification or drawing attention through pointing by means of language. Deictic expression is any expression that uses deictic word. The deictic word is one which takes some element of its meaning from the situation (the speaker, the addressee, the time and the place) of utterance in which it is used. The general phenomenon of its occurrence is called deixis. (Hurford, 2007: 66) Deixis is kind of reference that can only be accomplished with people and concrete things in one‟s immediate environment. The deictic words point directly to things in physical-social context of the speaker and addressee(s) of the context in which they are used. Context or situation of the utterance of deictic expression is very essential to determine what the referent. Deictic is word or noun phrase that has referent by looking the context. It means that different context will be different referent in spite of same word or expression. For the example: In the dialogue between Cahyo and Eka Cahyo: „I like semantics‟ Eka: „I do too‟ In those utterances, there are two same words. They are “I”. “I” in first utterance has different referent with “I” in second utterance although they are similar in form and sound. We agree that the first I points to Cahyo who is the speaker of it. It means that „I‟ in first has referent that is Cahyo. While the second I points to Eka who is the speaker of it. It means that „I‟ in the second has referent that is Eka. From the example we know that the most important thing that influences the referent is the context. In this case is the speaker. Different context (different speaker) will be different referent of deictic expression. Characteristics of Deictic Expression. 1. Deictic expressions are meaningful within a given context. Deictic expression is any expression that points to things or people in the context or situation in which the expression uttered. Deictic expression that is not supported by its context will be less meaning. 2. To achieve an appropriate interpretation, both the speaker and the hearer should share the same context of the utterance (they can have distance communication in condition that both of them know the context well before) Such as: a) Who is speaking The hearer must know who is speaking to him. By knowing the speaker the hearer will have referent of the speaker expression. b) The setting (time and space) c)The non-verbal communication (gesture) of the speaker If the speaker and hearer about the particular thing that exist in their circumstances and the speaker say to the hearer „take that glass for me! ‟ without pointing the glass, the hearer will confused which glass the speaker means. But if the speaker says that by pointing the glass, the hearer will have thorough referent. 3. Deictic expressions are mainly useful in face to face communication. By face to face, the speaker and the hearer will know exactly the context when the expression uttered. It belongs to whatever, whoever, and time that surround the participants′ environment. From the characteristics above, the function of deixis is to avoid ambiguities referent when the reference in an utterance is not clear by knowing the context and background knowledge about the topic being discussed. For example: „Dad, mother and aunt do not stay here anymore‟. That may be ambiguities utterance. It will provide backstop for us to determine who do not stay in the circumstances of the speaker, whether dad, mother, and aunt or only mother and aunt. By knowing the context, we will know exactly who they are. If in the context there are not dad, mother and aunt, so the speaker speaks to other, we can decide that the people who do not stay are dad, mother, and aunt. But if n the context of speaker there is dad and the speaker speaks to dad, we can decide that they are just mother and aunt. Taxis (from Greek meaning structure, order, arrangement) is the tense correlation between actions in the text(in the broad sense, including any types of predicates): simultaneity / non-simultaneity, ceasing, the relations between the primary and secondary actions, etc. [1, p. 503]. Within a speech act, the question is not about a separate action (state etc.), but about several actions, which are in some manner interrelated (chronologically, cause – effect, contrast relations, etc). These relations are reflected by specific relations between the predicates – relations which form the category of taxis. The term “taxis” was first suggested by R. Jakobson who defined it in the following way: “taxis characterizes the fact which is being referred to, concerning another fact which is being referred to, without any relation to the moment of reference” [7, с. 14]. The form of a verb indicates the time of the action, event or condition. The complex temporal relationship of actions, events and conditions is indicated using a sequence of tenses. There are various ways of categorizing the twelve verb tenses, including according to time: past, present and future. Verb tense: time There are four past tenses: simple past (I went) past progressive (I was going) past perfect (I had gone) past perfect progressive (I had been going) There are four present tenses: simple present (I go) present progressive (I am going) present perfect (I have gone) present perfect progressive (I have been going) Note that the present perfect and present perfect progressive are not past tenses—the speaker is currently in the state of having gone or having been going. There are four future tenses: simple future (I will go) future progressive (I will be going) future perfect (I will have gone) future perfect progressive (I will have been going) Verb tense: aspect Verb tenses may also be categorized according to aspect. Aspect refers to the nature of the action described by the verb. There are three aspects: indefinite (or simple), complete (or perfect) and continuing (or progressive). The three indefinite (or simple) tenses describe an action but do not state whether the action is finished: simple past (I went) simple present (I go) simple future (I will go) The indefinite aspects are used when the beginning or ending of the action, event or condition is unknown or unimportant to the meaning of the sentence. The indefinite aspect also indicates a habitual or repeated action, event or condition. The three complete (or perfect) tenses describe a finished action: past perfect (I had gone) present perfect (I have gone) future perfect (I will have gone) The complete aspect indicates that the end of the action, event or condition is known and emphasizes the fact that the action is complete. The action may, however, be completed in the present, in the past or in the future. The three incomplete (or progressive) tenses describe an unfinished action: past progressive (I was going) present progressive (I am going) future progressive (I will be going) The progressive aspect indicates that the action, event or condition is ongoing in the present, the past or the future. It is also possible to combine a complete (or perfect) tense with an incomplete tense to describe an action which was in progress and then finished: past perfect progressive (I had been going) present perfect progressive (I have been going) future perfect progressive (I will have been going) Explain the difference between the word-combination and the sentence. Give the syntactic classification of word-combinations. What is the role of fixed word order in the English language? |