итоговая аттестация. ИТОГОВАЯ АТТЕСТАЦИЯ. Итоговая аттестация
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\Ann! High-fall phrases sound lively, friendly and well-wishing. This termination is often heard in dialogical speech. Etymology. Etymological structure of the English Vocabulary. Etymology is a branch of lexicology studying the origin of words. Etymologically, the English vocabulary is divided into native and loan words, or borrowed words. A native word is a word which belongs to the original English word stock and is known from the earliest available manuscripts of the Old English period. A borrowed word is a word taken over from another language and modified according to the standards of the English language. The etymological linguistic analysis showed that the borrowed stock of words is larger than the native stock of words. In fact native words comprise only 30% of the total number of words in the English vocabulary. A native word is a word which belongs to the original English stock, which belongs to Anglo-Saxon origin. Many linguists consider foreign influence plays the most important role in the history of the English language. But the grammar and phonetic system are very stable (unchangeable) and are not often influenced by other languages. Besides when we speak about the role of native and borrowed words in the English language we must not take into consideration only the number of them but their semantic, stylistic character, their word building ability, frequency value, collocability (valency) and the productivity of their word building patterns. If we approach the study of the role of native borrowed words from this point of view we see, though the native words are not numerous they play an important role in the English language. They have high frequency value, great word-forming power, wide collocability, many meanings and they are stylistically neutral. Almost all words of native origin belong to very important semantic groups. They include most of the auxiliary and model verbs: shall, will, should, must, can, may; pronouns: I, he, my, your, his, who, whose; prepositions: in, out, on, under, for, of; numerals: one two three, four, five, six, etc; conjunctions: and, but, till, as etc; words denoting parts of body: head, hand, arm, back, foot, eye etc; members of a family: father, mother, brother, son, wife; natural phenomena and planets: snow, rain, wind, sun, moon, animals: horse, cow, sheep, cat; common actions: do, make, go, come, hear, see, eat, speak, talk etc. All these words are very frequent words, we use them every day in our speech. Many words of native origin possess large clusters of derived and compound words in the present-day language. Such affixes of native origin as er, -ness, -ish, -ed, un, -mis, -dom, -hood, -ly, -over, -out, -under, - are of native origin. Этимология - это ветвь лексикологии, изучающая происхождение слов. Этимологически, английский словарь разделен на родные и заемные слова или заимствованные слова. Родное слово - это слово, которое принадлежит оригинальному английскому языку и известно из самых ранних доступных рукописей древнеанглийского периода. Заимствованное слово - это слово, взятое с другого языка и измененное в соответствии со стандартами английского языка. Этимологический лингвистический анализ показал, что заимствованный запас слов больше, чем собственный запас слов. Фактически, родные слова составляют только 30% от общего числа слов в английской лексике. Родным словом является слово, которое принадлежит оригинальному английскому запасу, принадлежащему англо-саксонскому происхождению. Многие лингвисты считают, что иностранное влияние играет самую важную роль в истории английского языка. Но грамматика и фонетическая система очень стабильны (неизменяемы), и на них часто не влияют другие языки. Кроме того, когда мы говорим о роли родных и заимствованных слов в английском языке, мы не должны принимать во внимание только их число, но их семантический, стилистический характер, их способность к построению, частотность, способность колликации (валентность) и производительность их. Шаблоны словообразования. Если мы подходим к изучению роли коренных заимствованных слов с этой точки зрения, мы видим, хотя родные слова не многочисленны, они играют важную роль на английском языке. Они имеют высокую частотную ценность, большую словообразующую силу, широкую совместимость, много значений, и они стилистически нейтральны. Почти все слова родного происхождения принадлежат к очень важным семантическим группам. Они включают большинство вспомогательных и модельных глаголов: они должны, должны, должны, должны, могут; Местоимения: Я, он, мой, ваш, его, кто, чей; Предлоги: in, out, on, under, for, of; Цифры: одна два три, четыре, пять, шесть и т. Д .; Союзы: и, но, до, как и т. Д .; Слова, обозначающие части тела: голова, рука, рука, спина, стопа, глаз и т. Д .; Члены семьи: отец, мать, брат, сын, жена; Природные явления и планеты: снег, дождь, ветер, солнце, луна, животные: лошадь, корова, овца, кошка; Общие действия: делать, делать, идти, приходить, слышать, видеть, есть, говорить, говорить и т. Д. Все эти слова - очень частые слова, мы используем их каждый день в нашей речи. Многие слова родного происхождения обладают большими кластерами производных и сложных слов на современном языке. Такие аффиксы родного происхождения, как er, -ness, -ish, -ed, un, -mis, -dom, -hood, -ly, -over, -out, -under, - имеют коренное происхождение. 1.Etymological structure of the English vocabulary. 2 Native word-stems (man, pan). 3. Borrowings from latin (fanaticus -- fan). 4. Scandinavian borrowings (sky) – 9th-10th century. 5. Borrowings from French (beggar, fiancé) -Norman Conquest, 11th century. 6.Borrowings from other languages (European, Oriental - feng shui, American Indians). 1.Этимологическая структура английской лексики. 2 Родные словосочетания (человек, кастрюля). 3. Заимствования из латинского (fanaticus - fan). 4. Скандинавские заимствования (небо) - 9-10 в. 5. Заимствования с французского (нищий, жених) во время завоевания Нормана, 11 век. 6.Заимствования с других языков (европейские, восточные - фэн-шуй, американские индейцев) Words of native origin The origin of English words. The most characteristic feature of English is its mixed character. While it is wrong to speak of the mixed character of the language as a whole, the composite nature of the English vocabulary cannot be denied. Native words - words of Anglo-Saxon origin brought to the British Isles from the continent in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes - the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. 2. Native words are subdivided into two groups: 1) words of the Common Indo-European word stock 2) words of the Common Germanic origin 3.Words of the Indo-European stock have cognates (parallels) in different Indo-European languages: Greek, Latin, French, Italian, Polish, Russian and others: father (OE fder, Gothic fadar, Swedish fader, German Vater, Greek patйr, Latin pбter, French pere, Persian pedжr, Sanscrit pitr) 4.Words of the Common Germanic stock have cognates only in the Germanic group: in German, Norwegian, Dutch, Icelandic, etc.: to sing (OE singan, Gothic siggwan, German singen) 5. Numerically the Germanic group is larger. Thematically these two groups do not differ very much. Words of both groups denote parts of the human body, animals, plants, phenomena of nature, physical properties, basic actions, etc. Terms of kinship, the most frequent verbs and the majority of numerals belong to the Common Indo-European word stock. Many adverbs and pronouns are of Germanic origin. 6.Native words constitute about 30 percent of the English vocabulary, but they make up 80 percent of the 500 most frequent words. Almost all native words belong to very important semantic groups. They include most of the auxiliary and modal verbs (shall, will, should, would, must, can, may), pronouns (I, you, he, my, your, his, who, whose), prepositions (in, out, on, under), numerals (one, two, three, four, etc), conjunctions (and, but, till, as), articles. 7.Besides high frequency value words of the native word stock are characterised by the following features: - simple structure (they are often monosyllabic) - developed polysemy - great word-building power - an ability to enter a great number of phraseological units - a wide range of lexical and grammatical valency - stability 8.Notional words of Anglo-Saxon origin: - parts of the body: head, hand, arm, back; - members of the family and closest relatives: father, mother, brother, son, wife; - natural phenomena and planets: snow, rain, wind, frost, sun, moon, star; - animals: horse, cow, sheep, cat; - qualities and properties: old, young, cold, hot, heavy, light, dark, white, long; - common actions: do, make, go, come, see, hear, eat. Native words are highly polysemantic, stylistically neutral, enter a number of phraseological units. We see that the role of native words in the language is great. Many authors use native words more than foreign ones. Thus Shakespeare used 90% native words and 10% foreign words. Swift used 75% native words. 1. Слова родного происхождения Происхождение английских слов. Наиболее характерной чертой английского является его смешанный характер. Хотя ошибочно говорить о смешанном характере языка в целом, несоответствующий характер английского словаря нельзя отрицать. 1. Родные слова - слова англосаксонского происхождения, привезенные на Британские острова с континента в 5 веке германскими племенами - англами, саксами и ютами. 2.Родные слова подразделяются на две группы: 1) слова общего индоевропейского словарного запаса 2) слова общего германского происхождения 3.Слова индоевропейского фонда имеют родственные (параллели) в разных индоевропейских языках: греческий, латинский, французский, итальянский, польский, русский и другие: отец (СА f fder, готический фадар, шведский фейдер, немецкий фатер, греческий Patrr, латинский pbter, французский pere, персидский педжр, Sanscrit pitr) 4.Слова общегерманского происхождения имеют родственные отношения только в германской группе: на немецком, норвежском, голландском, исландском и т. д .: петь (СА singan, готический сиггван, немецкий singen) 5.Численно германская группа больше. Тематически эти две группы не очень сильно отличаются. Слова обеих групп обозначают части человеческого тела, животных, растений, явления природы, физические свойства, основные действия и т. Д. Сроки родства, самые частые глаголы и большинство цифр относятся к общему индоевропейскому слову. Многие наречия и местоимения имеют германское происхождение. 6.Родные слова составляют около 30 процентов английской лексики, но они составляют 80 процентов из 500 наиболее часто встречающихся слов. Почти все родные слова принадлежат к очень важным семантическим группам. Они включают в себя большинство вспомогательных и модальных глаголов (должно, должно, должно, должно, должно быть, может), местоимения (я, вы, он, мой, ваш, его, кто, чей), предлоги (в, На, внизу), цифры (один, два, три, четыре и т. Д.), Союзы (и, но, до, как), артикли. 7.Помимо высокочастотных значений слова исходного словарного запаса характеризуются следующими особенностями: - простая структура (они часто односложные) - развитая полисемия - отличная сила слова - способность вводить большое количество фразеологических единиц - широкий диапазон лексической и грамматической валентности - стабильность 8.Условные слова англосаксонского происхождения: - части тела: голова, рука, рука, спина; - члены семьи и ближайшие родственники: отец, мать, брат, сын, жена; - природные явления и планеты: снег, дождь, ветер, мороз, солнце, луна, звезда; - животные: лошадь, корова, овца, кошка; - качества и свойства: старые, молодые, холодные, горячие, тяжелые, светлые, темные, белые, длинные; - общие действия: делать, делать, идти, приезжать, видеть, слышать, есть. Родные слова очень многозначны, стилистически нейтральны, входят в число фразеологических единиц. Мы видим, что роль родных слов в языке велика. Многие авторы используют родные слова больше, чем иностранные. Таким образом, Shekespear использовал 90% родных слов и 10% иностранных слов. Swift использовал 75% родных слов. Borrowings enter the language in two ways: though oral speech (by immediate contact between the people) and though written speech (by indirect contact though books). Words borrowed orally (inch, mill, street, map) are usually short and they undergo more change in the act of adopter. Written borrowings (communique, belles - letters naivete, psychology, pagoda etc) are often rather long and they are unknown to many people, speaking English Заимствования входят в язык двумя способами: через устную речь (непосредственным контактом между людьми) и через письменную речь (косвенным контактом, через книги). Слова, заимствованные устно (дюймы, мельница, улица, карта), обычно коротки, и они подвергаются большему изменению в акте усыновителя. Письменные заимствования (коммуна, стиль переписки беллас - письма , психология, пагода и т. Д.) Часто довольно длинные, и они неизвестны многим людям, говорящим по-английски Borrowed words have been called “the milestones of philology” - said O. Jeperson - because they permit us (show us ) to fix approximately the dates of linguistic changes. They show us the course of civilization and give us information of the nations”. Заимствованные слова были названы «вехами филологии», - сказал О. Джеперсон, - потому что они позволяют нам (показать) приблизить даты лингвистических изменений. Они показывают нам курс цивилизации и дают нам информацию о народах ». The well-known linguist Shuchard said “No language is entirely pure”, that all the languages are mixed. Borrowed words enter the language as a result of influence of two main causes or factors; linguistic and extra-linguistic. Economic, cultural, industrial, political relations of speakers of the language with other countries refer to extra-linguistic factors. The historical development of England also influenced the language. Due to the great influence of the Roman civilization Latin was for a long time used in England as the language of learning and religion. Old Norse of the Scandinavian tribes was the language of the conquerors (9th, 10th and 11th centuries). French (Norman dialect) was the language of the other conquerors who brought with them a lot new notions of a higher social system, developed fuedalizm. It was the language of upper classes, of official documents and school (11th-14th centuries). These factors are extra-linguistic ones. Известный лингвист Шухард сказал: «Нет языка в чистоте», что все языки смешаны. Заимствованные слова входят в язык в результате влияния двух основных причин или факторов; Лингвистической и внеязыковой. Экономические, культурные, промышленные, политические отношения носителей языка с другими странами относятся к экстралингвистическим факторам. Историческое развитие Англии также повлияло на язык. Из-за большого влияния римской цивилизации латынь долгое время использовалась в Англии как язык обучения и религии. Древнескандинавские скандинавские племена были языком завоевателей (9-10-11 столетий). Французский (норманнский диалект) был языком других завоевателей, которые принесли с собой много новых представлений о высшей социальной системе, развили фьюдализм. Это был язык высших классов, официальных документов и школы (11-14 с). Эти факторы являются экстралингвистическими. The absence of equivalent words in the language to express new subjects or phenomena makes people borrow words. Eg. football, volleyball, midshipman in Russian; to economize the linguistic means, i.e. to use a foreign word instead of long native expressions and others is called linguistic cause. The closer the two interacting languages are in structure the easier it is for words of one language to penetrate into the other. The fact that Scandinavian borrowings have penetrated into such grammatical classes as prepositions and pronouns (they, them, their, both, same, till) can only be attributed to a similarity in the structure of the two languages. . Отсутствие эквивалентных слов в языке для выражения новых предметов или явлений заставляет людей заимствовать слова. Ex. Слова футбол, волейбол, мичман на русском языке; Чтобы экономить лингвистические средства, то есть использовать иностранное слово вместо длинных родных выражений, а другие называются лингвистическими причинами. Чем ближе эти два взаимодействующих языка находятся в структуре, тем легче для слов одного языка проникать в другой. Тот факт, что скандинавские заимствования проникли в такие грамматические классы, как предлоги и местоимения (они, их, их, оба, то же, до), могут быть отнесены только к сходству в структуре этих двух языков. Explain and exemplify the lexical, grammatical and phonetic means of expressing modality Mood is the grammatical category of the verb which serves to express modality. That is the relation of the action denoted by the verb to reality from the speaker’s point of view. Modality may be expressed in different ways. 1. First of all it may be expressed grammatically by means of the category of Mood; e.g. It is autumn now /Ind.M./ I wish it were summer now /Sub,}. II/ They suggested that we should go to the cinema /Sup.M./ 2. It may be expreised lexico-grammatically. i.e. by means of modal verbs /can, may,must/. In modal verbs modality can be expressed twice: it is expressed lexically by the modal lexical meaning of these verbs and besides it is expressed grammatically by the form of the mood in which modal verbs are used. e.g. They were in trouble, fortunately I could help them /Ind.M./ They are in trouble. I wish I could help them /Sub II/ 3. It may be expressed lexically by means of modal words: perhaps, surely, may be, certainly. 4. The phonetical expression of modality is by means of intonation. It is possible to express assurance or doubt. e.g. He is clever /I really think he is clever/ He is clever /I don’t think so The category of mood in Modern English is a very complicated category and it has given rise to lot of discussions and a lot of contradicting opinions. In the book "The structure of English" Pr.Ilysh writes that only 2 things are clear with regard to the category of mood: This category exists in the English language. There are at least 2 moods in this category and one of these moods is the Indicative Mood. Pr. Smirnitsky considers that there are 6 moods in the English language: • The Indicative Mood. They live in Moscow • The Imperative Mood. Help them • Subjunctive II. I wish it were summer now, • Subjunctive I. I suggest you help them • The Suppositional Mood. I suggest you should help them • The Conditional Mood. But for him they wouldn’t have finished the work in time. Professors Barhudarov and Shteling in the book “Грамматика aнглийского языка” write that there are 5 moods of the English verb: • The Indicative Mood • The Imperative Mood • Subjunctive II. But for him I wouldn’t have done it. Pr. Barh. writes that in many textbooks on grammar this form of the verb is called the Conditional Mood. • Subjunctive II. I wish it were summer now. • Conjunctive Hood. I suggest you should do it at once. It is important that you do it. In the book by Kobrina, Korneeva "English grammar" we find 3 moods: • The Indicative Mood. They live here. • The Imperative Mood. Do it at once. • The Subjunctive Mood. I wish it were summer. I suggest you do it in time. Pr. Bloch in his book “a cours in theoretical English grammar” (1983) writes about 4 moods. First of all he points to the opposition of the direct mood /the Ind. M./ it which represents an action as a real fact and oblique moods which represent the action denoted by the verb as unreal. The Indicative Mood is the marked member of the opposition and has guite a definite meaning, it represents an action as a real fact. The Oblique moods form the unmarked members of the opposition. They don’t characterize - the action as a real fact and have a number of meanings: The Spective Mood /subj.I/ . It represents an action as desired or hypothetical. The general meaning of desired or hypothetical action besides the meaning of desire includes supposition, suggestion, recomen-dation, inducement, command, order. - Do it at once. - I suggest that you should do it at once. - It is important that you do it at once. - It is important that you should do it at once. Let us do it at once. - May it all happen as we wish. Pr. Bloch writes that the Imperative Mood may be included into Subjunctive I because they both express a command, a suggestion or recommendation, Do it at once. I insist that you do it at once. The combination of verbs should+inf., let+inf, may/might+inf. are included into this mood because they also express - suggestion The oblique Moods: The Stipulative Mood /subj.II/. It denotes an unreal action on which other unreal actions depend: - If he were here he would help us. - If it were summer we wouldn’t be sitting here. - The Consective Mood /Subj.II/. It expresses an unreal action - which depends on another unreal stipulative action; - If he were here he would help, us. The category of Mood is so difficult because in this category there is, no strict correlation; between the form and the meaning: /He is speaking, was asked, tables, the most beautiful./ in many cases forms that sound alike express different modal meaning – i knew he would соme. If I knew that he would come I would come too. In some cases different forma are used to express the same modal meaning - I suggest that you do it. I suggest that you should do it. The forms do and should do express the same modal meaning and are used in the same syntactical constructions. It is not always easy to draw the line beetween the grammatical and lexico-gramnatical expressions of modality, e.g. Sometimes it is difficult to say whether the verb should is a modal verb with the meaning следует or whether it is an auxiliary verb devoid of any - meaning and used to form one of the oblique moods. e.g. I suggest he should do it. But in some cases it is quite clear that should is an auxiliary verb which forms an oblique mood. It is annoying that the child should be naughty. Due to the fact that there is no correlation between the form and the meaning linguists express their opinions about it. Pr. Smirn. said attention to the form of the mood and that’s why he writes that there are 6 moods in English. Pr. Bloch took into consideration the meanings of this category and he finds 4 moods /Spective mood/ - his Subj. I expresses order, recommendation, suggestion and so he includes into Subjunctive I such forms as: do it, let’s do it, should do it, might do it, do it at once. In textbooks for schools pupils are given 3 moods: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, but in the Russian language the subjunctive mood has only 1 form - the form which is homonymous with the past tense and the particle “бы” - ---------------------------------------------- Explain and exemplify the referential function. Discuss the opposition of definiteness vs. indefiniteness, permanent definiteness vs. occasional definiteness, referent usage vs. non-referent usage, strong indefiniteness vs. weak indefiniteness Roman Jakobson defined six functions of language (or communication functions), according to which an effective act of verbal communication can be described. Each of the functions has an associated factor. Our theme is referential function. The referential function: corresponds to the factor of Context and describes a situation, object or mental state. The descriptive statements of the referential function can consist of both definite descriptions and deictic words, e.g. "The autumn leaves have all fallen now." Similarly, the referential function is associated with an element whose true value is under questioning especially when the truth value is identical in both the real and assumptive universe. It is denotative, cognitive function which is oriented toward the ‘context’. To show things or facts, the referential function is the most obvious function of language: for example: “The earth is round.”, “Water boils at 100 degrees.” Category of Definiteness – Indefiniteness. By these category grammarians understand the definiteness or indefiniteness of the object named (обозначаемый предмет). The notion of definiteness-indefiniteness can be expressed by lexical means and grammatically, i.e. by the articles and the determiners. The indefinite article expresses the indefiniteness of the object named. The definite article expresses the definiteness of the object named and singles it out of a class of similar objects. The absence of the article is also meaningful and occurs when we would expect the indefinite article to be used with abstract nouns and nouns in the plural with which the indefinite article is not used since it is associated with the idea of “oneness”. Thus the absence of the article means the absence of the indefinite article mostly and functions as such. Indefiniteness – a man, men Definiteness – the man, the men The determiners this, that, each, every, some, any, which, no, either, much, the conjoint possessive pronouns my, his, etc. are used to express definiteness or indefiniteness. E.g. That room was small. I took off my hat. One day, when we were in love; one wonderful morning in May... Proper names are identified well enough not to need the articles or the determiners. But as soon as they are not, they are used with the article or some determiner: e.g. The Browns are out of the town. She married a Jackson. In English article is a sign which expresses the category of determination (definiteness - indefiniteness) grammatically. It may get the meaning of determination or indetermination only in speech, all the other so called meanings of the articles are its functions. The article itself cannot particularize or classify the noun. The article is a form word, which shows how the noun should be understood (a class noun, a unique thing, etc). So, the context plays the most important part in the use of articles in English Speech. Definiteness is always referential (specific), presupposes the existence and uniqueness of the object in the general field of view of the speaker and the listener. Usually they speak of two majorities. sources of certainty: permanent and occasional. Permanent definiteness arises at the addressee on the basis of information from the immediately preceding text (see Context); eg, "I saw this actress recently in one film (indefiniteness), <...> such a film (definiteness) is good, how is this film (definiteness) called?" (E.V. Grishkovets); "But I have a brother (indefiniteness), he (that is, the brother just mentioned - definiteness) is studying at the second year of the conservatory" (AG Aleksin). The reference to the object in question is a sample of anaphoric relations, which are among the most essential means of maintaining the coherence of the text. Occasional definiteness relies on knowledge of the world common to the ministry and the hearer, so that certain objects turn out to be uniquely derived from the situations obtained, even if they have not been mentioned before; eg, "There was no free private office in Aragvi, and we were given some sort of office room (uncertainty), the window (certainty) was sealed by newspapers" (K. Ya. Vanshenkin). Within the framework of reference specific indefiniteness, the so-called weak indefiniteness (semi-indefiniteness), when the fame of an object for a speaker is combined with its obscurity for the addressee [eg, "About what I am about to tell, I have very scant information, they only allow me to guess something, to guess something" ( A. N. Rybakov); "Ataman of this gang was a certain Gavrilenko, who called himself" the pupil of Prince Kropotkin himself "(DA Granin)], and a strong indefiniteness - the unknown of some object for both the listener and the speaker, when the existence of this object is combined with the impossibility of uniquely to identify him [eg, "Immediately someone hit me on the head with something, and when I jumped up, I came to, there was no bag" (VT Shalamov); "Once in Kiev, it was in the sixty-eighth year, I received a letter from some unknown lady" (VP Nekrasov)]. Non-referential usages associated with the expression of unspecified uncertainty are most diverse. Among them, in particular, existential uses are singled out, when the situations in which single, but not individualizers participate, are indicated. object: only the "search field" is defined-the class of objects or phenomena into which it enters [eg, "It will be advised to run to one of her friends, most likely to Larissa" (Yu. V. Trifonov); "Each of Koltsov's students chooses his favorite ideas in his works, each sculpts his image, creates his own portrait" (DA Granin)], and all-female, when all or at least typical representatives of the open class are meant [ for example, "Many, many years later, during the war and the blockade, I noticed that in dangerous, especially serious moments of life, women are often more economical, more reserved in intonation and facial expressions than men" (VS Shefner) ; "I'll tell you more: take a close look at any person, and you will see that he is not like everyone else" (I. Grekova)]. Explain and exemplify the role of passive constructions in English
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