итоговая аттестация. ИТОГОВАЯ АТТЕСТАЦИЯ. Итоговая аттестация
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What is a Homophone? A homophone is one of two or more words that are pronounced the same but differ in their meaning, origin, or spelling. The difference between homographs and homophones is that homophones must be pronounced alike. They don’t need to be spelled alike; in fact, many of them are not. But they need to be pronounced the same. There are many many examples of homophones. Some are new and knew, carat and caret, complement and compliment, to, too, and two, there, their, and they’re, etc. To sum up, Homonyms can refer to both homographs and homophones. Homographs are words that are spelled alike but not always pronounced the same. Homophones are words that are pronounced alike but not always spelled the same. Lexicology. The branches of Lexicology. Lexicology is the branch of linguistics that analyzes the lexicon of a specific language. A word is the smallest meaningful unit of a language that can stand on its own, and is made up of small components called morphemes and even smaller elements known as phonemes, or distinguishing sounds. Lexicology examines every feature of a word – including formation, spelling, origin, usage, and definition.[1] Lexicology also considers the relationships that exist between words. In linguistics, the lexicon of a language is composed of lexemes, which are abstract units of meaning that correspond to a set of related forms of a word. Lexicology looks at how words can be broken down as well as identifies common patterns they follow.[2] Lexical semantics studies meanings of words, in other words, the content, information rendered by lexical units. Semasiology is a branch of semantics that is concerned with the meaning of words and phrases, used in nomination, studies the types of meaning, the change of meaning, the semantic structure of words, semantic groupings, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, etc. So semasiology studies what it is the name points out. For instance, the word star has two meanings ‘celestial object’ & ‘celebrity’. Terminologically semasiology is opposed to onomasiology which studies nomination, or means and ways of naming the elements.The theory of nomination has to show how the objects receive their names and what features are chosen to represent them. Onomasiology is a branch of semantics which studies the process of naming and lexical objectification of notions. For example, some extralinguistic properties of the phenomenon led to the onomatopoeic nomination to sizzle. Word formation studies all possible ways of the formation of new words and models according to which new words are built. For example, nowadays suffixation is a highly productive way of word formation: singlehood, nationhood, leaflet, flatlet, stardom, fandom, oldster, bankster. Phraseology studies set-expressions with transferred meaning or phraseological units such as a bull in a china shop, a lame duck, stick and carrot policy, a pipe dream. Etymology studies the origin of words. For example, the noun beggar was borrowed from Old French and the verb to beg appeared in the English language as a result of back derivation by analogy with worker and work. Lexicography – an applied branch – deals with science of compiling dictionaries. There are two principal approaches to the study of language material in linguistic science, namely the synchronic (or descriptive) and the diachronic (or historical) approach. The study of a language at a certain period of its development is called a synchronicone. The study of historical development of language elements is called diachronic. According to the synchrony/ diachrony criteria English lexicology correspondingly falls into historical lexicology which studies the origin and development of the English vocabulary, and descriptive lexicology of Modern English, which studies the vocabulary of a given language at a given stage of its development. Contrastive and comparative lexicology study the correlation between the lexical units of two or more languages. The aim of such studies is to find out the correspondences between the vocabulary units of the languages under comparison. The difference between the comparative and contrastive studies is as follows: - the comparative lexicology aims to find both similarity and difference in two or more languages, while the contrastive lexicology aims at finding differences in the native and foreign languages; - the comparative lexicology compares the lexical subsystems of the languages under study, while the contrastive lexicology compares one language unit of the native language with all possible ways of its expression in the foreign language, or vice versa. Contrastive lexicology establishes how many lingual units of language B are equivalent to the lingual unit of language A. For example, one lingual unit of language A corresponds to two lingual units of language B: рука – hand, arm; girl – девочка,девушка. Let’s compare the word книгаand its English equivalent book.Only one collocation of the English word book is equivalent to Russianкнига, which is a book on/about birds – книгаожизниптиц. The rest of the meanings of the word book correlate with words other than книга, cf. a reference book – справочник, a ration book – карточки, to do the books – вестисчета, our order books are full – мыбольшенепринимаемзаказов, to be in smb's good/bad books – бытьнахорошем/плохомсчету, I can read her like a book – явижуеёнасквозь, we must stick to/go by the book – надодействоватьпоправилам, I'll take a leaf out of your book – япоследуютвоемупримеру, Не was brought to book for that – заэтоегопривлекликответу. The same concerns Russian-English word pairs: закрытый – closed, закрытоезаседание – private meeting, закрытоеголосование – secret ballot, закрытоепомещение – indoors. Knowledge of lexicology promotes systemic and successive comprehension of the peculiarities of foreign language words as compared with the native words. One can indicate discrepancies in the semantic structure, take into consideration peculiarities of collocation, morphological structure, show specific features of synonymic usage, provide for the stylistic characteristics. All mentioned things help to avoid literal translation and employ the deliberate language acquisition. Linguistics. General Linguistics. Branches of Linguistics. What is linguistics? Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Linguistics aims to understand how the language faculty of the mind works and to describe how language itself works. Linguists observe patterns within a language and across languages to try to understand what principles drive our brains’ comprehension and production of language. There's a quote by Lynne Murphy that "asking a linguist how many languages s/he speaks is like asking a doctor how many diseases s/he has had". As linguists, languages (and language) are our objects of study. We learn to look at languages as data and recognize their patterns, just as doctors learn to recognize signs and symptoms of diseases. Whether they have had the disease before or not is irrelevant. Many people come to linguistics from other areas: math, computer science, philosophy, anthropology, psychology, and cognitive science, just to name a few popular related fields. Linguistics spans a large number of subfields, each dealing with a different part of the language faculty. PHONETICS: THE STUDY OF THE ACOUSTICS AND SOUNDS OF LANGUAGES A phonetician might, for example, look at how stress manifests in a language. In English, the stressed word in a normal sentence is louder and higher-pitched: “ANna likes bananas.” If we ask a question though, it’s pronounced with a lower pitch: “ANna likes bananas?” PHONOLOGY: THE STUDY OF SOUND SYSTEMS AND HOW THEY PATTERN For example, in English, there are many examples of t's in the middle of words that sound quite different from t's at the beginning or end of words. Listen to the t's in "toted" and you’ll hear that they don’t sound the same. The first t is pronounced with a puff of air (put your hand in front of your mouth to check this) but the second is not and it sounds like the d in “coded.” This sound is called a tap because your tongue taps the roof of your mouth briefly and it is very similar to the tapped r sound in languages like Spanish or Japanese (this leads to misperceptions of the English middle t as an r for speakers of these languages). SYNTAX: THE STUDY OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE English and many western European languages have a phenomenon called “wh-movement.” wh-words are the question words who, which, what, where, when, why, and how. Think about the sentence “I eat an apple” as a possible response to the question “What do you eat?” The word what corresponds to apple, but it shows up at the beginning of the sentence. In many languages, though, the wh-word corresponds to the same position as the word it refers to. For example, in Chinese you would say “I eat apple” in response to “You eat what?” We say then that in languages like English, wh-movement has occurred and the structure is: “What do you eat what?” A lot of other properties of a language are predicted by whether it has wh-movement or not, but we’ll have to leave those to another time! SEMANTICS: THE STUDY OF MEANING AND FORMALIZING IT INTO A LOGICAL FORM English and many western European languages have a phenomenon called “wh-movement.” wh-words are the question words who, which, what, where, when, why, and how. Think about the sentence “I eat an apple” as a possible response to the question “What do you eat?” The word what corresponds to apple, but it shows up at the beginning of the sentence. In many languages, though, the wh-word corresponds to the same position (called in-situ) as the word it refers to. For example, in Chinese you would say “I eat apple” in response to “You eat what?” We say then that in languages like English, wh-movement has occurred. In English, the wh-word moves to the front of the sentence (why “do” appears in questions is another issue that I don’t have room to tackle here). A lot of other properties of a language are predicted by whether it has wh-movement or not, but we’ll have to leave those to another time PSYCHOLINGUISTICS: THE STUDY OF HOW LANGUAGE MANIFESTS IN THE BRAIN Psycholinguists carry out experiments to observe the reaction of the brain’s different areas to different stimuli, and they’ll try to relate the findings to the more abstract linguistic theories. An example is tracking people’s eye movements when they read the sentence “The old man the boat.” This is known as a garden path sentence, because readers are led down a “false path.” The reader does a double take once s/he reaches “the”, having expected a verb to appear. The second time around, the reader realizes that “man” is a verb and then parses the sentence correctly. These garden path sentences provide insight into how sentence parsing occurs in the brain. SOCIOLINGUISTICS: THE STUDY OF THE INTERSECTION OF LANGUAGE WITH SOCIETY Sociolinguists might look at attitudes toward different linguistic features and its relation to class, race, sex, etc. For example, one of the fathers of sociolinguistics, William Labov, carried out an experiment in New York City in which he visited three department stores—a low end one (S. Klein), a mid-end one (Macy’s), and a high-end one (Saks Fifth Avenue)—and inquired where a department was in order to prompt the answer “fourth floor.” The higher end the store, the more likely the “r” was pronounced, and when asked to repeat, it was only Saks Fifth Avenue and Macy’s where the “r” became much more likely to be pronounced the second time around. The study also had implications for the ability in different communities to code switch to a prestige dialect. COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS: THE STUDY OF APPLYING COMPUTER SCIENCE TO LINGUISTICS Computational linguists might use programming to model linguistic structure or change or for practical applications, such as Natural Language Processing, which has implications both for figuring out and modeling how language acquisition works as well as for translation software. HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS: THE STUDY OF HOW LANGUAGES CHANGE ACROSS TIME Historical linguists may work in language-specific areas, carrying out what is called reconstruction. Just as evolutionary biologists compare features of related organisms to reconstruct their common ancestor, historical linguists do the same with related languages, under the important fact that languages change regularly. As a simple example, f’s at the beginning of English words correspond to p’s at the beginning of Latin words if neither is borrowed from another language (father : pater, fish : pisces, pellis : felt, pes : foot). Using reconstructions, historical linguists will try to trace migration patterns and make inferences about the prehistoric culture, triangulating with results by geneticists, anthropologists, and archaeologists. Historical linguists might also look at what patterns exist in language change and seek to explain why these patterns exist. APPLIED LINGUISTICS: THE STUDY OF APPLYING LINGUISTICS TO REAL-LIFE SITUATIONS An applied linguistic will likely work in fields such as such as language education, translation, or language policy. For example, an applied linguist may also carry out research in first and second language acquisition in order to figure out effective and efficient ways to teach language in school settings. Long and short vowels in English: what is the real difference between them? Difference Between Long and Short Vowels There are five vowels in the English language. They are a, e, i, o, u. These vowels can represent a variety of sounds. The length and the sound of a vowel can change according to its position in a word and the pronunciation of that word. Vowels can be classified into long and short vowels based on their length. The main difference between long and short vowels is that long vowels have a long sound whereas short vowels have a short sound. |