английский. Учебник английского языка для вузов. Спб. Издательство Северная Звезда
 Скачать 3.55 Mb.
|
|
Text 5 СЕТЕВАЯ ЦИТАДЕЛЬ а/ (Новая рабочая группа по вопросам безопасности сетей) О хакерах (hacker) все слышали, но мало кто видел. То же самое (the same) можно сказать и о службах компьютерной безопасности (safety) , которые противостоят нападениям (withstand attacks). Оно и понятно - работники служб безопасности не любят быть на виду (be in sight). Как правило, каждый провайдер Internet имеет собственную (own) службу безопасности, однако для отражения (withstand) некоторых нападений должны взаимодействовать (coordinate) между собой службы различных провайдеров. В Америке и Европе координируют деятельность (activities) провайдеров по защите (defence) своих компьютерных сетей координационные центры CERT, которые также являются источниками (sources) информации по вопросам безопасности для операторов и обычных пользователей (users) Internet. В российской Сети до недавнего времени не было такого координирующего и консультативного органа (advisory board). Члены комитета Internet Ассоциации документальной электросвязи (АДЭ) решили восполнить этот пробел (fill the gap), образовав в своем составе новую рабочую группу по вопросам юезопасности рабочих сетей. Новая рабочая группа будет разрабатывать механизмы (develop mechanisms) координации действий (actions) провайдеров в случае угрозы (in case of threat to) информационной безопасности Сети либо в случае обнаружения (discovery) нападения на системы безопасности провайдеров или их клиентов. Поскольку предполагается( иу ыгззщыув), что рабочая группа будет объединением (association) экспертов по компьютерной безопасности, вступить (join) в нее может только организация, отвечающая определенным требованиям (correspond to certain demands). Таким образом будет поддерживаться (keep) высокий профессиональный уровень (level) группы. Основная ее деятельность будет заключаться в подготовке руководств (make guidelines) и других материалов по решению общих проблем (solve common problems) безопасности. Поэтому в составе группы должны быть только те организации, которын могут реально помочь в подготовке (preparing) таких документов. Основное их занятие (activity) - это координация действий провайдеров при реагировании на инциденты (take meaures against incidents). Одним из проектов, поддерживаемых (supported by) группой сетевой безопасности, является создание (establishing of) Российским НИИ (research institution) развития общественных (national) сетей (РосНИИРОС) аналитического центра компьютерной безопасности (АЦКБ). Его основная функция - координация действий провайдеров для защиты компьютерных сетей и сбор (collecting) информации о нападениях и нападающих. Кроме того (besides), аналитический центр будет предоставлять (provide) информацию, связанную с вопросами безопасности, всем желающим. Уже сейчас существует Web-узел АЦКБ (www.cert.ru). Рабочая группа будет контролировать (supervise) планы АЦКБ и результаты его работы, а также определять стратегические направления (directions) развития этого проекта. АЦКБ примут участие и в деятельности рабочей группы в качестве экспертов, но формально (officially) не будут являться его членами, как и (likewise) сам АЦКБ. Text 6 MAFIABOY ПРИЗНАЛСЯ, ЧТО СЛОМАЛ Amazon, CNN, eBay и Yahoo Юный хакер, известный под именем Mafiaboy, который обвиняется (to b accused of) в проведении серии атак на такие сайты, как Amazon.com, CNN.com, eBay.com и Yahoo.com, признал себя виновным (to confess oneself guilty), как сообщает NewsBytes.com. 16-летний житель Монреаля, против которого было выдвинуто 66 различных обвинений, признал себя виновным в 55 из них. Ранее он заявил, что абсолютно невиновен (not guily/innocent). Хакер выводил из стр (to damage) известные сайты, используя систему DOS-атак. Для этих целей он проник (to penetrate) на значительное количество серверов, в частности, на серверы нескольких университетских сетей и использовал их для создания многочисленных (numerous) запросов (inquiry), адресованных атакуемым сайтам. Рано или поздно сервер, на котором располагался сат, не справлялся (fail to cope with) со всеми этими запросами, и сайт прекращал (to cease) функционировать. Обвинения, предъявленные хакеру, включают в себя и атаку на известные сайты, и несанкционированное (unauthorised) проникновени (penetration) в целый ряд коммерческих и некоммерческих сетей. Согласно подсчетам (estimation) пострадавших (victim), их ущерб (damage done) от действий хакера составил 1,7 млрд. долларов. Теперь Mafiaboy может провести два года в тюрьме (jaail) и заплатить 660 долларов в качестве штрафа (fine). Слушания (hearings) по делу Mafiaboy пройдут 17 и 18 апреля 2001 г., до этого он остается свободным. 19 января 2001 г. Suplementary Reading Text 1. Computer Crimes The explosive growth in the use of computers in the business world in the past few years has brought with it a corresponding increase in computer misuse. Traditional (precomputer) state and federal laws applicable to such crimes as trespass and larceny are not necessarily appropriate for prosecution of cases of computer fraud and computer theft. For example, one court held that a city employee's use of the city's computer facilities in his private sales venture could not support a theft conviction absent' any evidence that the city was deprived of any part of value or use of the computer. In some cases, use of a computer has not been deemed «property» within traditional theft statutes. Computer crimes fall mainly into three broad categories: simple unauthorized access, theft of information, and theft of funds. Among schemes that have been subjects of litigation are stealing a competitor's computer program; paying an accomplice to delete adverse information and insert favorable false information into the defendant's credit file; a bank's president having his account computer coded so that his checks would be removed and held rather than posted so he could later remove the actual checks without their being debited; and a disgruntled ex-employee's inserting a «virus» into his former employer's computer to destroy its records. Some estimate that losses due to computer misuse may be as high as $35 to $40 billion per year (including thefts of funds, losses of computer programs and data, losses of trade secrets, and damage done to computer hardware). These estimates may not be reliable, but it is clear that a substantial amount of computer crime is never discovered and a high percentage of that which is discovered is never reported because companies do not want publicity about the inadequacy of their computer controls and financial institutions, such as banks, fear that reports of large losses of funds, even when insured, are likely to cause depositors to withdraw their funds in the interest of safety. Whatever the actual loss due to computer misuse, both Congress and the state legislatures have passed statutes to deal specifically with computer crime. At least 45 states have passed laws dealing with computer crime. Most of the statutes comprehensively address the problem, outlawing computer trespass (unauthorized access); damage to computer or software (e.g. use of «viruses»); theft or misappropriation of computer services, and unauthorized obtaining or disseminating of information via computer. There have been relatively few prosecutions under these state laws or the federal acts, leading some experts to suggest that the problem of computer crime has been overestimated. Vocabulary. crime - преступление explosive - взрывчатый, подобный взрыву corresponding - соответствующий increase - увеличение, возрастание misuse - злоупотребление state - здесь: штат applicable - применимый threspass - нарушение (чужого) права владения larseny - хищение имущества necessarily - необходимо appropriate - соответствующий prosecution - обвинение, судебное преследование fraud - мошенничество theft - кража employee - служащий private - личный sales - продажи venture - фирма support - поддержать conviction - обвинительный приговор convict (of) - обвинять (в) absent = in the absence of evidence - доказательство deprived (of) - лишенный value - цена, ценность, стоимость deem - считать, полагать property - собственность statute - статут, законодательный акт fall* into - подпадать (под) broad - широкий unauthorised - неуполномоченный, неразрешенный access - доступ funds - фонды, финансы, средства litigation - тяжба, гражданский судебный процесс stealing - кража competitor - конкурент accomplice - сообщник, соучастник delete - стереть adverse - здесь: нежелательный insert - вставить, ввести favorable - благоприятный account - (банковский) счет defendant - ответчик, обвиняемый remove - перемещать, переносить rather than - а не disgruntled - недовольный, рассерженный debit - заносить в дебит post - послать по почте ex- = former - бывший destroy - разрушить records - мн.ч.: записи estimate - оценивать losses - мн.ч.: потери due to - из-за, благодаря data - мн.ч.: данные trade - торговый damage - урон, ущерб, убытки hardware - жесткий диск reliable - надежный, достоверный substantial - значительный, существенный amount - количество, сумма, объем discover - открывать, обнаруживать publicity - гласность, широкая известность fear - бояться insured - застрахованный cause - вызывать, влечь depositor - вкладчик withdraw* - изымать, снимать, забирать safety - безопасность legislature - законодательный орган/власть pass - принять (закон) deal* with - иметь дело (с) comprehensively - всесторонне, исчерпывающе address the problem - заняться проблемой outlaw - объявит вне закона software - программное обеспечение misappropriation - незаконное завладение obtaining - получение dissemination - распространение via - через/посредством relatively few - сравнительно немного expert - специалист, эксперт overestimate - переоценивать Ex. Answer the following questions.
Text 2: Privacy and more at risk The security; of personal communications appears again to have succumbed to government's desire to listen in on them. This week two University of California graduate students, using a laptop computer, reported cracking digital cell-phone codes thought to be impossible to break. Such encryption is what has kept cyber-thieves ' from 'snatching digital cell-phone codes from the airwaves and using them or selling them to others for illegal calls. Such theft from old-style 'analog cell phones has cost phone companies and, by extension, their customers—millions of dollars. But in breaching digital phones' protection, the computer researchers didn't merely reveal potential dangers to cell-phone users. They exposed a threat by government to a safe, prosperous digital electronic future for everyone. The researchers say their cellular code cracking was made easier because the code itself had been weakened possibly to allow for government surveillance. That may or may not be true. No coding expert though could think of any other good reason for the phone codes now. Federal law enforcement and security agencies have tried repeatedly to keep not only phone companies but also U.S, software makers and computer manufacturers from providing the best code protection available for everything from computer records to bank accounts - unless they provide government technological means to secretly get around it. Those agencies now are pushing Congress to pass laws, that would require such decoding technology for any encrypted information. They say it's needed so they protect the nation from terrorists and drug dealers. But a National Research Council study in 1996 and European Commission report this year found that crooks and terrorists can get around any country's cryptography restrictions, with software available on "the Internet. And there are thousands of encryption products sold over the counter worldwide. Indeed as the cloning of the, cell-phone codes shows, those most threatened by government's obsession with maintaining its eavesdropping capability are legitimate businesses and their customers. If government would only get out of their way, they'd have a better chance of protecting themselves (USA Today, April, 17, 1998) Vocabulary privacy - тайна, секретность, уединенность security - безопасность personal - личный succumb - уступать graduate student - выпускник desire - желание crack - вскрыть, нарушить digital - цифровой cell(ular) phone - сотовый телефон break* - нарушить (закон) encryption - кодирование cuberthief - кибервор snatch - хватать, глотать illegal - нелегальный, незаконный theft - кража by extansion - здесь: шире customer - клиент breach - нарушать protection - защита merely - просто reveal - открывать, обнаруживать danger - опасность safe - безопасный code-cracking - вскрытие кода weaken - ослаблять allow - позволять surveiilance - слежка, наблюдение reason - причина, повод flaw - здесь: уязвимое, слабое место enforcement - законодательный keep from - удерживать(ся) от... repeatedly - повторно provide - обеспечивать, предоставлять available - доступный, имеющийся account - счет (в банке) means - средство get* around - обойти, обмануть push - подтолкнуть pass laws - принимать законы require - требовать(ся) drug dealer - накркоторговец council - совет study - исследование crook - разг.: жулик, плут restriction - ограничение over the counter - за прилавком, т.е. легально продаваемый clone - клонировать, множить threaten - угрожать obsession - навязчивая идея maintaining - поддерживать eavesdrop - подслушивать capability - способность legitimate - легитимный, законный Comprehension Check. Ex. Answer the following questions: 1. What is the government's desire? 2. Why is security of personal communication succumbing to the government? 3. What did the graduate students of the University of California do? 4. What kept cyberthieves from snatching digital cell-phone codes? 5. How much did such theft from old-style analog cell phone cost phone customers? 6. What does breaching digital phone's protection mean for cell phone-users? 7. Whay was the researcher's cellular code-cracking made easier? 8. What do coding experts think about the phone codes' flaw? 9. What organisations were kept from providing the best code protection available for evrynbody? 10. Who tried to persuade them doing so? 11. What are these agencies pushing Congress to do? 12. How do they explain it? 13. What does cloning of the cell-phone codes show? 14. What is meant by the "government's obsession"? Topics to discuss. 1. Attempts of the government to have decoding technology for any encrypted information? 2. Privacy at risk. Text 3:  Small Town Crime Graham Harrison was an ambitious young policeman from the big dry, so he was disappointed with his first job on duty in Parley; all he had to do was patrol the older part of the town, instead of hunting for bank robbers, gangsters and terrorists. Sergeant Maidment, who had lived there all his life, advised him to walk around quietly and be friendly. He explained that most of the inhabitants of those streets were too old to commit any serious crimes, and warned him not to interfere unless it was really necessary. As Graham turned into Harcourt Road, an old-fashioned street with a row of terraced houses, he wondered if he would ever have the opportunity of distinguishing himself in a small provincial town like Parley. But then he saw a crowd of people on the pavement. Two middle-aged women were fighting. One of them was bleeding from a bad cut on the forehead; she had her hands round her opponent's throat and was trying to strangle her. The other woman was screaming. Some of the neighbours were trying to separate them, but a small boy stood in the doorway of his house, laughing and cheering. Graham ordered the women to stop fighting. He took their names and addresses and asked the neighbours how the fight had started. It seemed that Sarah Hardcastle, who lived at number 14, had accused Jean Morris, who lived at number 10, of knocking on her door several times while she was doing her ironing and then running indoors again. Jean denied it. On the contrary, she accused Sarah of knocking on her door. Then Sarah had thrown the iron at Jean and hit her on the forehead. Sarah admitted that she had attacked Jean but she refused to apologise. Graham offered to take Jean to hospital but she said she didn't need treatment. In the end, they agreed to go indoors and one of the neighbours invited Graham to have a cup of tea. Once the street was quiet again, he went to report to Sergeant Maidment. The Sergeant listened to his report, and then he smiled. 'Well, Sarah Hardcastle and Jean Morris have hated one another since they were girls,' he said. 'In those days in a town like Parley, most men married the girl next door, so they both had their eye on Charlie Walker. But he married Nora Bames, from Windsor Street, instead. So if Sarah and Jean hate each other, they hate Nora even more. When she and Charlie celebrated their silver wedding last week, Sarah and Jean complained to us about the row and threatened to take Charlie and Nora to court. Charlie rang me up and begged me to sort it out. I managed to calm them down, the Walkers apologised for making a noise, and that was the end of it. But it spoilt the party. 'I don't suppose you ever played a game as a boy of tying the knockers of two terraced houses together with string. If you rap one and run away, the person who opens the door automatically pulls the string and knocks at the other house. Hasn't it struck you that.the houses concerned were number 10 and number 14 Harcourt Road? No wonder young Jimmy Walker was laughing and cheering in the doorway of number But I expect he had cut the string by the time you arrived. He'd already had his revenge!' Vocabulary be disappointed(with) - быть разочарованным patrol - патрулировать hunt - охотиться robber - грабить advise - советовать inhabitant - житель commit - совершать warn - предупреждатть interfere - вмешиваться unless - если не old-fashioned - старомодный row - ряд wonder - интересоваться distinguish oneself - отличиться crowd - толпа pavement - трутуар bleed - истекать кровью, кровоточить forehead - лоб opponent - противник throat - горло strangle - задушить scream - орать cheer - подбадривать accuse - обвинять knock - сутчать iron - утюг; гладить deny - отрицать on the contrary - напротив hit - ударять, бить admit - допускать, признавать refuse - отказываться apologise - извиняться treatment - здесь: лечение hate - ненавидеть complain - жаловаться threaten - угрожать court - суд beg - умолять sort it out - выяснить, разобраться calm down - успокаивать tying - связывание knocker - стучащий string - бечевка, веревка strike* - здесь: прийти в голову revenge - месть Comprehension Check. Ex. Answer the following questions: 1. How many policemen were there in Farley? 2. Where was Graham Harrison from? 3. Whay was he disappointed with his first job on duty in Farley? 4. What did Sergeant Maidment advise him to do? 5. Was there an opportunity to distinguish oneself in this provincial town? 6. What scene did he see in the street? 7. What did the ladies accuse each other of? 8. What did he offer to the old fighting ladies? 9. What case did the sergeant explain him later? 10. What game was played there? 11. Did anyone in the street guess(догадаться), what it was? Topics to Discuss. 1. Crimes in a small town. 2. A scene in the street. 3. Many-year hatress (ненависть)of the two ladies. 4. The boy's "game". Text4: Torts Defamation of Character (1) A person's reputation is a valuable asset. Therefore, every person is protected from false statements made by others during his or her lifetime. This protection ends upon a person's death. The tort of defamation of character requires a plaintiff to prove that (1) the defendant made an untrue statement of fact about the plaintiff and (2) the statement was intentionally or accidentally published to a third party. In this context, publication simply means that a third person heard or saw the untrue statement. It does not just mean appearance in newspapers, magazines, or books. (2) The name for an oral defamatory statement is slander. A false statement that appears in a letter, magazine, book, photograph, movie, video, and the like is called libel. Most courts hold that defamatory statements in radio and television broadcasts are considered libel because of the permanency of the media. (3) The publication of an untrue statement of fact is not the same as the publication of an opinion. The publication of opinions is usually not actionable. «My lawyer is lousy» is an opinion. Since defamation is defined as an untrue statement of fact, truth is an absolute defense to a charge of defamation. Invasion of the Sight to Privacy (4) The law recognizes each person's right to live his or her life without being subjected to unwarranted and undesired publicity. A violation of this right constitutes the tort of invasion of the right to privacy. Examples of this tort include reading someone else's mail, wiretapping, and such. Publication to a third person is necessary. In contrast to defamation, the fact does not have to be untrue. Therefore, truth is not a defense to a charge of invasion of privacy. If the fact is public information, there is no claim to privacy. However, the fact that was once public (e.g., the commission of a crime) may become private after the passage of time. (5) Placing someone in a «false light» constitutes an invasion of privacy. For example, sending an objectionable telegram to a third party and signing another's name would place a purported sender in a false light in the eyes of the receiver. Falsely attributing beliefs or acts to another can also form a basis of a lawsuit. Public Figures as Plaintiffs (6) In New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, the U.S. Supreme Court held that public officials cannot recover for defamation unless they can prove that the defendant acted with «actual malice». Actual malice means that the defendant made Vocabulary. tort - правонарушение defamation of character - клевета, очернение репутации valuable - ценный asset - имущество, достояние therefore - следовательно protect - защищать false - ложный, недостоверный statement - утверждение require - требовать(ся) plaintiff - истец defame - порочить, клеветать defamation - диффамация, клевета defamatory - позорящий, клеветнический, порочащий prove - доказывать defendant - ответчик, обвиняемый intentionally - умышленно, преднамеренно accidentally - случайно, непредумышленно publish - здесь: обнародовать, довести до сведения appearance - появление oral - устный slander - клевета письменная slanderer - клеветник libel - клевета устная hold* - признавать, решать broadcast - вещать consider - считать, рассматривать permanency - постоянство, непреходящая ценность media - масс-медиа, средства массовой информации opinion - мнение actionable - обладающий исковой силой, дающий право на иск actionability - исковая сила lawyer - юрист lousy - разг.: гнусный since - поскольку define - определять, давать определение defense - защита charge (of) - обвинение (в) invasion - вторжение right to privacy - право на тайну recognise - признавать subject to - подвергать unwarranted - необоснованный, неуполномоченный undesired - нежелаемый, нежелательный publicity - гласность, широкая известность violation - нарушение constitute - составлять, представлять собой wiretapping - подслушивание телефонных разговоров publication - предание гласности commission - совершение crime - преступление passage - течение (времени) objectionable - неприятный, нежелательный, вызывающий возражения signing - подписание purport - претендовать, подразумевать sender - отправитель receiver - получатель attribute - приписывать lawsuit - иск, судебное дело/процесс public figure - общественный plaintiff - истец public official - государственное должностное лицо recover - получать возмещение по суду malice - злой умысел malicious - умышленный, злонамеренный reckless disregard - безответственное пренебрежение falsity - ложность, недостоверность, ложь requirement - требование extend - распростаняться (на) personality - личность, лицо public figure - общественный деятель celebrity - знаменитость Ex. Answer the following questions.
Text 5: United States Legal System In the United States legal system there are fundamentally three sources of law, the Constitution, legislation, and the courts. The US Constitution defines the basic powers of the three branches of government, and establishes the rights and responsibilities of the people. The legislature (the US Congress or state legislature) enacts laws by the representatives of the people. The courts provide legal rulings that define and interpret the law, and court cases provide important "precedent" for later cases. This is the basis of the common law system that had its origin in the British legal system. Nearly 50 years ago the most important legal issue in American education was the question of integrated schools. The landmark Brown vs. Board of Education Supreme Court case determined that a "separate but equal" system of US education violated the equal protection clause of the US Constitution. For many years after the decision in Brown, the states struggled with the question of integration, how to break down the barriers to equal education for all races. A controversial method was forced "bussing" of students, and for many years this was the most divisive issue in US education. Many of these issues have been resolved, although the school systems in many urban with minority populations still suffer from neglect and lack of adequate support. In the 1990's there has been increasing dissatisfaction with a public school system that is often viewed as big, inefficient, bureaucratic, and unresponsive the needs of the students. In the US Education system today there are two important issues relating to educational reform, and both of them have unresolved legal questions. Both issues have arisen as a result of parents and neighborhood schools seeking to have a greater control over the education of their children. The first issue is that of "vouchers", a system whereby a family is given a credit of a certain amount of money to apply to the education of their child. This credit can be used in a private or parochial (religious) school, or any other qualified institution. This is designed to give parents a greater freedom of choice, but it was challenged on the ground that it violates the US Constitution. The First Amendment provides that the government "shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion" and this brief clause formed the basis of the separation of church and state in America for more than two hundred years. Many people oppose the voucher system, including the teachers unions, who claim that it will drain limited resources away from public schools. And many feel that the voucher is merely a way to cover up state support for religious education. They argued that the voucher system violated the US Constitution. But in November 1998, the US Supreme Court refused to hear the case challenging the Wisconsin voucher law. The Wisconsin courts had found the law to be valid. The practical effect of this case was to allow other states to adopt similar laws, and the trend can be expected to continue. Other states are now likely to follow the Wisconsin model, but it is entirely up to the state legislature to approve a system of vouchers. The second major issue in US educational reform today is the charter school system. These are public schools, but they are "chartered" under special contracts designed to give the local school, and the parents, a much greater degree of freedom in choosing the curriculum and teachers. There are more than 30 states in the US today with charter school laws, and each one is different. The strongest charter school laws give the greatest autonomy and permit the greatest flexibility in the type of organization that can sponsor a charter school. In some states even "for profit" corporations can run a charter school. In many states charter schools are exempted from most state educational laws, including the requirement to hire union teachers. Needless to say, the teacher's unions have often opposed charter schools. It is interesting to note that both the voucher system and the charter school movement are working primarily to assist low-income students. As a practical matter in the US, this means minority students. The Wisconsin voucher program limits assistance to families with incomes no more than 175% of the "poverty" line. This means that the wealthier families (more than half of the public school population) are not eligible. Both the voucher system and the charter school system have had some degree of success because low-income parents want the best possible education for their children. And this may not always be found in the traditional system of large public schools. There seems to be an increasing trend towards charter schools in America, and each state has a different approach towards the level of autonomy provided. Vocabulary legal - юридический; issue - вопрос; to face - сталкиваться; source - источник; legislation - законодательство; court - суд; to define - определять, давать определение; branch - ветвь; to establish - устанавливать; responsibility - обязанность; legislature - законодательная власть; to enact - принимать (закон); to provide - обеспечивать, предоставлять; ruling - управление; to interpret - толковать; case - случай, дело; basis - основа; common - общий, общепринятый; origin - происхождение; integrated - объединенный, совместный; landmark - поворотный пункт, веза; vs. = versus - против; board - совет; supreme - верховынй; to determine - определять; separate - раздельный; equal - равный; to violate - нарушать; protection - защита; clause - статья, пункт; to struggle - бороться; to break down - разрушить; controversial - противоречивый; to force - застявлять, принуждать; divisive - разделяющий (людей); to resolve - решать; urban - городской; to suffer (from) - страдать (от); neglect - пренебрежение; lack (of) - отсутствие, нехватка; support - поддержка; to increase - увеличивать; to view - рассматривать; inefficient - неэффективный; responsive - ответный (о взгляде и.д.); to relate (to) - относиться (к); to seek - искать; whereby - при помощи, посредством; как, чем; certain - некий, определенный; amount - сумма, количество; to apply - применять, использовать; parochial - приходской; institution - учреждение; designed - здесь: предназначенный; to challenge - здесь: оспаривать; amendment - поправка; to provide - обеспечивать, предоставлять; to respect - уважать; brief - краткий, сжатый; to oppose - противостоять; to claim - утверждать; to drain - истощать (средства); public school - государственная школа; way - способ; merely - просто; to cover up - спрятать, прикрыть; to argue - оспаривать; to refuse - отказываться; valid - действительный, имеющий силу; to allow - позволять, разрешать; to adopt - принимать (закон); similar - подобный, схожий; trend - тенденция; entirely - полностью, целиком; charter - устав; привилегия; даровать (хартию, грамоту..); to permit - позволять, разрешать; flexibility - гибкость; to sponsor - спонсировать, финансировать; for-profit - коммерческий; to exempt (from) - освобождать (от); requirement - требование; to hire - принимать на работу; movement - движение; low-income - низкий доход; matter - вопрос; to limit - ограничивать; wealthy - состоятельный; eligible - подходящий; желательный; degree - степень; approach - подход; towards - к, по отношению к; access (to) - доступ (к); to rank - распределять, классифицировать. Ex. Answer the following questions. 1. What are the sources of law in the U.S. legal system? 2. What are the functions of each of them? 3. What was the most important legal issue in American education 50 years ago? 4. What is the attitude of public toward the public school system in 1990-s? 5. What does the "voucher program" mean"? Give its historic background. 6. Do all people in America support this system? 7. What is the second major issue in U.S. educational reform? 8. What does a charter school mean? 9. Why do the teacher's unions oppose charter schools? 10. Who are supported by the voucher system and the charter school movement Text 6: THE WHOLE WORLD IS WATCHING. As more and more cameras are connected to the net, the web is growing eyes. But is everyone ready for a close-up? Webcams have been around for a few yeas now, transmitting round the-clock images of famous buildings, the surf conditions up and down the Pacific coastline, heavy traffic, street scenes and fish tanks. Since the first one went live sometime in the early '90s, Webcams have been proliferating steadily - though no one knows for sure how many are out there. An Internet search for the phrase "live Webcam" showed 9,28 Web pages. But there were many links to personal Webcam page where people are connecting cameras to the Internet and, privacy be damned, letting the world watch. And the world is tuning in. Observers of the Webcam phenomenon say it's the logical next step for a society hooked on reality based television shows like "Cops" and MTV's popular "Real World" series. People are already turning cameras on themselves the Internet allows them to effectively broadcast those images, cheaply and continuously. Why watch other people's lives when other people could be watching yours? Unfortunately, as entertainment, watching someone's life is even more boring than it sounds. Webcams tend to catch people in their most routine moments: sitting at a desk in front of their computer, staring at their monitors or typing. And yet, for a growing number of the voyeuristically inclined, these cyber transmissions have a strange appeal. Brian Cury, who runs a large Web-based directory of Webcam sites atwww.earthcam.com, says, "You develop a relationship with that person and you start to care about them." There is, for example, the Webcam Dave Williams set up for his daughter, Danielle. The Williamses' Web site featured a window where you could watch a live snapshot of the baby that was updated once an hour, throughout the day and night, by a small $ 150 video-camera hanging above her crib. At the time Williams thought it would be a neat way for friends and family to watch Dani as she grew up. Then the fan e-mail started coming. From strangers in France. And Japan. And from a class of second grade somewhere in a small town . Most of these people simply stumbled on the site in the course of regular Web surfing. Traffic to the DaniCam site grew from a few hits a month to 1,000 a day. At first Dave and his wife, Sheryl, were amused by the attention. The true horror of what they had done didn't hit them until they saw "The Truman Show," the 1998 movie in which a man unknowingly lives his life in front of cameras and a worldwide audience of prime-time viewers. "We're sitting there watching the movie and Sheryl turns to me and says, 'You're disconnecting the Dani Cam'." That night, the DaniCam went dark "To this day," says Williams, "people send e-mail saying, 'We miss Dani'." Those Dani-addicts could migrate to the Marrero family camera, which is Webcasting images of Samantha, 2 y.o., and her brothel Matthew, who's a year old, live from their shared bedroom in Newark, N.J. or to Web Dorm.com, where you can watch real-life college students eat, sleep and study in their natural habitat 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Ryan Scott, a senior at Southen Methodist University, has kept his Webcam going for two years and uses it to socialize with friends and family, and meet new people. Cody Ward, a 20-year-old at the University of Florida, starting Web-camming a year ago out of curiosity but says he forgets the camera's even there anymore. "It's whatever. It's on." Nobody knows this strange new world better than the female star of the Webcam that started it all in 1996 - the JenniCam at www.jennicam.org (be careful; porn lives right next door at www.jenny cam.org). Jennifer Ringley, now 23, is still there, living her life. The site started as a project for a computer class that Bingley took as a junior in college. She had seen a Webcam called The Amazing Fish Cam (pointed at an aquarium in the offices of Netscape, the browser-software company) and thought to herself, "Why not?" Three years later, the site gets 4.5 million hits a day and costs upwards of $15,000 a month to maintain. To help the financials break even, she charges $15 a year for a "subscription. There probably won't be too many more such Jennis in our lifetime. But Webcams are sure to be a feature of tomorrow's technology landscape. People are increasingly discovering practical uses for them, such as monitoring a beach house during winter months or peeking in on kids through Webcammed day-care centers. In the future Webcams might allow you to check out the scene inside a nightclub before you stand in line, or help you get out of traffic using highway Webcams that can beam gridlock conditions to your moving car. These sorts of applications may well prove indispensable - and, in the process, make Webcam-addicts of us all. |