Английский пособие. англ. From the history of pharmacy (part i) Запомните суффикс ity образует существительные суффикс ly
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часть первая 1,325 учеников вторая страница более 1,500,000 человек номер десятый 266 дней сороковой размер менее 1000 страниц параграф третий XII. Прочитайте слова, запомните их произношение и дайте их русские эквиваленты: chemical, substance, fundamental, combination, nitrogen, oxygen, aluminum, extremely, helium, electronic, equivalent, energy, nucleus, valence, hydrogen, electrovalent, ionic, ion, electrostatic, structure XIII. Выучите следующие слова и словосочетания: constitute – составлять obviously – очевидно abundant – распространенный, обильный crust – корка; покрываться коркой universe – вселенная attributable – определительный, характерный accordingly – соответственно melting point – точка плавления boiling point – точка кипения indicate – указывать positively charged – положительно заряженный negatively charged – отрицательно заряженный determine – определять valence – валентность require – требовать bond, bonding – связь covalent bond – ковалентная связь transfer – перемещать confirm – подтверждать; поддерживать tentative – гипотетический, предполагаемый XIV. Прочтите следующие вопросы и пометьте те из них, на которые вы можете ответить и те, на которые вы затрудняетесь ответить. What does all matter basically consist of? What is a chemical element? Can you name the most abundant elements in nature? What is the total number of elements known today? What do the properties of the chemical elements depend on? What does the atomic number of an element indicate? How is the ability of an atom to combine with another atom called? How are the atoms held together? What kinds of bonding do you know? What is the Periodic Table of elements? XV. Прочтите текст А и найдите в нем ответы на «трудные» вопросы и отметьте те, на которые вы ответили неправильно. Text A. Chemical Elements A chemical element is any substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by ordinary chemical processes. Chemical elements constitute the fundamental materials of which all matter consists. Of all the known elements, 90 occur in nature either chemically free or in combination with other elements. About one-third of the elements found in nature occur in a chemically free state on Earth. These elements, which obviously are not very active chemically, include nitrogen, gold, platinum, copper, and the noble gases. The five most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust are oxygen (466,000 parts per 1,000,000, or 46,6%), silicon (27,7%), aluminum (8,1%), iron (5%), and calcium (3,6%). Hydrogen is by far the most abundant element in the universe, accounting for more than 90% of the total number of atoms and for about three-fourths of the mass. Helium is next in abundance, constituting about 7% of the number of atoms and nearly one-fourth of the total mass. The properties of the elements are to a large degree attributable to the electronic structure and size of their atoms. Accordingly, they are extremely diverse. Helium, for example, has the lowest-known melting point (-271,4 degrees C at 29,6 atmospheric pressure) and boiling point (- 268,98 degrees C) of any of the elements, while tungsten has the highest-known melting point (3,370 degrees C) and boiling point (5,900 degrees C). The atomic number of an element indicates the number of protons (positively charged particles) in the nucleus of a given atom. It is also the number of electrons (negative charged particles) in the atom that determines the chemical properties of the element. Each electron moves in an atomic orbit (equivalent to a particular energy level) around the nucleus. The ability of an atom to combine chemically with another atom is called its valence. The valence of an element is the number of electrons it needs to gain or lose in order to make it stable. Atoms require a total of eight electrons in the outermost energy level to be stable in the case of the lightest atoms (hydrogen and helium) the number is two. The way in which atoms are held together is known as bonding. The covalent bond is a type of chemical bond in which atoms are held together by shared pairs of electrons which move around both atoms. The electrovalent (or ionic) bond is another kind of chemical bond between atoms. Here, electrons are transferred from one atom to another forming ions. This produces electrostatic attraction; in other words, the attraction between opposite charges holds the ions together. As the list of different elements grew in the 19th century – by 1860 over 80 were known – chemists attempted to group them together and to classify them according to their behavior. In 1869 the Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleyev made a complete table by arranging the elements in order of their atomic weights in rows so that elements with similar properties appeared in columns. The Periodic Table produced by Mendeleyev was refined by further research into the structure of atoms. At present there are 110 known chemical elements. (The discovery of element 110, reported in 1987 by Soviet scientists, remains unconfirmed, however, and is still considered extremely tentative). XVI. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты названий следующих химических элементов: золото, кремний, медь, азот, алюминий, железо, кальций, водород, платина, гелий, кислород, благородные газы, вольфрам. XVII. Дайте русские эквиваленты следующих слов и словосочетаний: to occur in a chemically free state, chemically active, the most abundant element, the total mass, extremely diverse, a chemical bond, to be held together by shared pairs of electronics, the list of different elements, to arrange the elements in order of their atomic weights, elements with similar properties, to remain unconfirmed. XVIII. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих слов и словосочетаний: Распадаться на более простые вещества; встречаться в природе, включать; самый распространенный элемент; составлять около ¾ от массы; составлять около 7%; атомное число; отрицательно заряженные частицы (электроотрицательные частицы); электроположительные частицы; способность соединяться; валентность элемента. XIX. Дайте дефиниции следующих понятий: atomic number, valence, bonding, a covalent bond, an ionic bond, the Periodic Table TASKS I. Read the text paying attention to internationalisms. Find the answers to the following questions: 1. On what principle was the first classification of the elements based? 2. What was the principle of Mendeleyev’s classification? Text B. Classification of the Elements Several years later, in 1864, J.A.R. Newlands proposed a system of classification of the elements in the order of increasing atomic weights, the elements being assigned ordinal numbers from unity upward and divided into seven groups having properties closely related to the first seven of the elements then known: hydrogen, lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. This relationship was termed the law of octaves, by analogy with the seven intervals of the musical scale. Then in 1869, as a result of an extensive correlation of the properties and the atomic weights of the elements, with special attention to valency (that is, the number of single bonds the element can form), Mendeleyev proposed the periodic law, by which “the elements arranged according to the magnitude of atomic weights show a periodic change of properties.” Lothar Meyer had independently reached a similar conclusion, published after the appearance of Mendeleyev’s paper. II. Write the names of the following chemical elements using symbols and formulas: helium, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, iron, lead, ammonia, cirate, ferric hydroxide, ferric sulfate, zinc oxide, sodium hydroxide, copper, potassium, sodium chloride, mercury LESSON 8 Грамматика: степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий; греко-латинские терминоэлементы CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS Запомните: суффикс – ar является суффиксом прилагательных; cуффикс – ive образует прилагательные от глаголов I. 1. Прочитайте и переведите: cellular, ventricular, corpuscular, muscular, vascular, regular, particular 2. Прочитайте и переведите: effective, preventive, active. infective, penetrative, reactive, coagulative, hypertensive, successive, connective, attentive, constructive, collective, decisive II. 1. Образуйте сравнительную и превосходную степень данных прилагательных. easy, bad, beautiful, big, difficult, expensive, good, hot, important, little, long, nice, old, rude, small, short, tall, strong, sunny, rainy. III. Ответьте на следующие вопросы по образцу. Переведите получившиеся предложения. Образец: I have a thin book. And what about Bill (Tom)? Bill has a thinner book, and Tom has the thinnest book. Doctor Black is a good doctor. And what about Dr. Brown and Dr. Smith? Peter’s brother is young. And what about Bill’s and Tom’s brother? I have many friends. And what about Mary and Jane? Nick’s translation is bad. And what about Bill’s and Henry’s translation? It was cold yesterday. And what about the day before yesterday? This mountain is high. And what about Everest? English is a difficult language. And what about Chinese and Japanese languages? I have a good dictionary. And what about Mike’s and Andrew’s dictionaries? IV. Поставьте прилагательное или наречие в соответствующую форму. 1) Every morning I get up 10 minutes_____ (early) than my sister. 2) What are the_____ (dangerous) animals in Australia? 3) I can run as_____ (fast) as my elder brother. 4) You should buy the blue sweater. It suits you_____ (good) than the red one and I think it fits_____ (perfect) 5) If you worked_____ (careful), you would make_____ (few) mistakes. 6) Joy Fielding writes the_____ (exciting) books I've ever read. 7) Caroline is the_____ (pretty) dressed girl in this room. 8) Vienna is the_____ (large) city in Austria. 9) Please, speak_____ (clear), I_____ (hard) understand the instructions. 10) Bob ran_____ (slow) than his classmates. 11) Jo is the_____ (good) footballer in my team and he plays very_____ (fair) V. Употребите либо as … as, либо notso … as в следующих предложениях. Образец: Ben Nevis is __________ as Mont Blanc (not/high). Ben Nevis is not as high as Mont Blanc. 1) The blue car is__________ the red car. (fast) 2) Peter is__________ Fred. (not/tall) 3) The violin is__________ the cello. (not/low) 4) This copy is__________ the other one. (bad) 5) Oliver is__________ Peter. (optimistic) 6) Today it's__________ yesterday. (not/windy) 7) The tomato soup was__________ the mushroom soup. (delicious) 8) Grapefruit juice is__________ lemonade. (not/sweet) 9) Nick is__________ Kevin. (brave) 10) Silver is__________ gold. (not/heavy) VI. Соедините в пары названия органов и тканей человеческого организма и прилагательные, образованные от них с помощью латинско-греческих терминоэлементов.
VII. Прочитайте слова, запомните их произношение и дайте их русские эквиваленты: characteristic, unique, symbol, original, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, Latin, fundamental, compound, methane, formula, molecule, sodium chloride, positive, negative, discussed, substance, covalent, ionic, alphabet, synthesized, mixture VIII. Выучите следующие слова и словосочетания: a compound – соединение universe – вселенная in pure form – в чистой форме a sample – образец to constitute – составлять is designated – соответствующий; предназначенный current – находящийся в обращении; текущий respectively – относительно, соответственно in the ratio – в соотношении to indicate – указывать, обозначать species – вид; род; порода; разновидность IX. Прочтите и переведите текст А: Text A. Chemical Compounds All the matter in the universe is composed of the atoms of more than 100 different chemical elements, which are found both in pure form and combined in chemical compounds. A sample of any given pure element is composed only of the atoms characteristic of that element, and the atoms of each element are unique. For example, the atoms that constitute carbon are different from those that make up iron, which are, in turn, different from those of gold. Every element is designated by a unique symbol consisting of one, two, or three letters arising from either the current element name or its original (often Latin) name. For example, the symbols for carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are simply C,H, and O, respectively. The symbol for iron is Fe, from its original Latin name ferrum. The fundamental principle of the science of chemistry is that the atoms of different elements can combine with one another to form chemical compounds. Methane, for example, which is formed from the elements carbon and hydrogen in the ratio four hydrogen atoms for each carbon atom, is known to contain distinct CH molecules. The formula of a compound – such as CH – indicates the types of atoms present, with subscripts representing the relative numbers of atoms (although the numeral 1 is written). Water, which is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio two hydrogen atoms for every oxygen atom, contains H2O molecules. Sodium chloride is a chemical compound formed from sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) in a 1:1 ratio. Although the formula for sodium chloride is NaCl, the compound does not contain actual NaCl molecules. Rather, it contains equal numbers of sodium ions with a charge of positive one (Na+) and chloride ions with a charge of negative one (Cl-). ( The process for changing uncharged atoms to ions (i.e., species with a positive or negative net charge] will be discussed below). The substances mentioned above exemplify the two basic types of chemical compounds: molecular (covalent) and ionic. Methane and water are composed of molecules – that is, they are molecular compounds. Sodium chloride, on the other hand, contains ions – it is an ionic compound. The atoms of various chemical elements can be likened to the letters of the alphabet: just as the letters of the alphabet are combined to form thousands of words, the atoms of the elements can combine in various ways to form a myriad of compounds. In fact, there are millions of chemical compounds known, and many more millions are possible but have not yet been discovered or synthesized. Most substances found in nature – such as wood, soil, and rocks – are mixtures of chemical compounds. X. Ответьте на следующие вопросы: 1. How many chemical elements are there in the universe? 2. How is every element designated by? 3. What is the fundamental principle of the science of chemistry? 4. What are the two basic types of chemical compounds? 5. What can the atoms of various elements be likened to? 6. What are most substances found in nature? TASKS I. Read and translate the text B. Mention the criteria for the classification of compounds. Text B. Classification of Compounds Chemical compounds may be classified according to several different criteria. One common method is based on the specific elements present. For example, oxides contain one or more oxygen atoms, hydrides contain one or more hydrogen atoms, and halides contain one or more halogen (group 7) atoms. Organic compounds are characterized as those compounds with a backbone of carbon atoms, and all the remaining compounds are classified as inorganic. As the name suggests, organometallic compounds are organic compounds bonded to metal atoms. Another classification scheme for chemical compounds is based on the types of bonds that the compound contains. Ionic compounds contain ions and are held together by the attractive forces among the oppositely charged ions. Common salt (sodium chloride) is one of the best – known ionic compounds. Molecular compounds contain discrete molecules, which are held together by sharing electrons (covalent bonding). Examples are water, which contains H2O molecules; methane, which contains CH4 molecules; and hydrogen fluoride, which contains HF molecules. A third classification scheme is based on the reactivities of compounds – specifically, the types of chemical reactions that the compounds are likely to undergo. For example, acids are compounds that produce H+ ions (protons) when dissolved in water to produce aqueous solutions. Thus, acids are defined as proton donors. The most common acids are aqueous (water) solutions of HCl (hydrochloric acid), H2SO4 (sulfuric acid), NO3 (nitric acid), and H3PO4 (phosphoric acid). Bases, on the other hand, are proton acceptors. The most common base is the hydroxide ion (OH-), which reacts with an H+ ion to form a water molecule. H+ + OH --- HOH (usually written H2O). |