Учебное пособие Кривцова, Кочетова. Учебное пособие для обучающихся по техническим и экономическим направлениям подготовки бакалавров
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Heating. In order to maintain standard room temperature, the heating apparatus must supply heat to replace the lost through the walls, floors, and ceilings, and, in addition, the heat necessary to warm the cold fresh air used for ventilation. Heat is lost by conduction through cracks around doors, windows, etc. Systems of heating. Leaving stoves and fireplaces out of consideration, the systems ordinarily employed for heating may be classified as follows: a) hot air b) steam c) hot water Hot air systems. In a hot air system, heated air from the furnace is introduced through leaders, stacks, and registers into the room. This air is at a higher temperature than the room, and, in flowing across the ceilings and down by the walls, heat is abstracted until it is eventually cooled to the desired room temperature. Fresh warm air from the furnace then forces the air that has been cooled to room temperature out of the room through cracks, fireplaces, etc. A heat balance may therefore be written as follows: the heat given up by the entering air equals the heat lost by conduction. The force which causes hot air to flow from furnace to room results from the difference in densities of the cold air outside and the warm air inside the furnace and pipes. Advantages. A hot air system is cheap to install, has a low cost of maintenance, and is not hard to manage, its operating cost is little, if any, greater that of hot water or steam system of equal capacity. Positioning Tools From using the sun, the moon and the stars to the development of compasses and maps and in very recent times the technology of satellite GPS systems and radar, man has always needed a way to find his bearings, whether travelling on foot, at sea or in the air. Navigation is as fundamental for humans today as it was in the past, and with all the sophisticated technology now available navigation tools are not just used to stop people getting lost. Consider the transport industry for example. A GPS tracking system on a truck can ensure that a driver takes the best route - avoiding traffic, saving time and petrol costs - but it also helps the transport company to monitor the driver and ensure that he respects the speed limits, only travels at the permitted times and rests at regular intervals for the required amount of time, respecting the law and increasing safety. It can even allow the company to find the vehicle in case of theft! You have probably used maps on the internet or your mobile phone, and have seen how satellite images can now identify places with incredible detail, even looking into your living room from the sky above! This can be useful for planning a trip before you leave or finding a friend's house; but the technology is also used for a whole series of professional purposes: from calculating weather to urban planning and even security and warfare. Like all forms of technology the GPS has a few disadvantages of course - it is not always 100% reliable – the suggested route may not always be the best, because some problems are not signaled or the information transmitted to the map is not completely accurate; and some people consider that GPS is an invasion of their privacy. However, this technology is obviously here to stay, and destined to improve; and, if used properly, its advantages are clearly greater than its drawbacks. Oil Tankers The oil tanker was developed in the late 19th century as a solution for transporting large quantities of 'black gold ' across the globe. Today, oil tankers fall into two basic categories, crude tankers and product tankers. Crude tankers are the larger of the two. They move raw, unrefined oil from the places where it's pumped out of the earth, to the refineries where it is processed into fuel and other products. Product tankers, on the other hand, are smaller than crude tankers and move already-processed petroleum products to markets where they can be sold and used. Corporations are always seeking the most efficient way to accomplish a task in order to maximize profits. Due to their immense size, oil tankers provide an easy and inexpensive way to transport oil over long distances. In fact, it only costs around two to four cents per gallon to transport oil using a typical tanker. Like many other influential technologies, oil tankers have helped us progress as a civilization, but they have also presented us with considerable problems. Without oil tankers, it would be impossible to travel as easily and often as we do. However, some of the worst man-made environmental disasters in history have resulted from oil tanker accidents. When oil spills into the sea it creates enormous damage to nature, which takes many years to recover. In order to prevent these accidents occurring again in the future new regulations have been introduced. For example, new oil tankers must be double-hulled, which means that there are two layers separating the oil they carry from the sea. This reduces the risk of oil spills in case the tanker has an accident, but of course it does not eliminate risk completely. Sea transportation of oil also carries other risks, including pirates, who take control of the tanker and demand money in return. The future of oil tankers is also uncertain, just as the future of the oil industry itself is. Man is looking for new ways of producing energy as oil reserves are finishing and ecological issues are becoming more important. The Organization of an Airport An airport is the location where aircraft take off and land, where goods, passengers and their baggage transit. Aircraft may be stored or maintained at an airport, where we usually distinguish two main parts: an air side and a land side. In the former we find all the infrastructures and services that serve to move aircraft, runways, taxiways, aircraft parkings, aprons and the air traffic control system; in the latter there are all the facilities and services associated with passengers such as the access to the airport, the terminal footpaths and the car parks. Gates are instead usually considered the border between the two areas. The airport ramp or apron is the area where aircraft are parked, unloaded or loaded, refueled and boarded. The apron is not usually open to the general public and a license may be required to gain access. The use of the apron may be controlled by the apron management service (apron control or apron advisory). The apron is designated by the LC.A.O. (International Civil Aviation Organization) as not being part of the maneuvering area. All vehicles, aircraft and people using the apron are referred to as 'apron traffic'. In the USA, the words 'apron' and 'ramp' are used interchangeably in most circumstances. Generally, the preflight activities are carried out on ramps and areas for parking & maintenance are called aprons. Air Safety Many people feel very frightened when they travel by plane, but you may not know that, in fact, air travel is statistically the safest form of motorized transport known to man! Today it is estimated that there is only one fatality for every 2,000 million person-miles flown in the air. Accurate communication between the pilot and the ground is obviously fundamental for air safety, and indeed many accidents are caused when this information is inaccurate or provided too late. Four out of five accidents occur during take-off or landing procedures, that's why you must always seat with your seatbelt fastened during these procedures and you are not allowed to use electronic devices. Another cause of accidents could be the presence of ice or snow on the wings, which increases the weight of the plane, requiring a higher speed to avoid stalling. Engine failure rarely causes accidents in large aircraft because they operate with several engines, so an emergency landing is usually possible. When an airplane flies through volcanic ash its engines can lose power completely. Today, meteorological information is so precise that airspace is simply closed in the presence of volcanic ash, as in the case of the eruptions in Iceland in 2010. Aircraft safety is improving all the time. However it is important to read carefully and know all the safety indications on the passenger safety card. Road and transportation: The GPS System GPS, which stands for Global Positioning System, is a radio navigation system belonging to the American Ministry of Defense, that allows land, sea, and airborne users to determine their exact location, velocity, and time 24 hours a day, in all weather conditions, anywhere in the world . The complete name of the system is NAVSTAR GPS, which means 'Navigation Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System'. It was born as a top secret project of the American Department of Defense during the final years of the Cold War so initially it was intended just for military purposes. Today the GPS service is provided free of charge by the United States Air Force to the entire world. It is a constellation of satellites (21 active and 3 spare ones) orbiting at 11,000 nautical miles above the Earth and a series of ground stations that control and monitor those satellites. The satellites are spaced so that from any point on Earth, four satellites will be above the horizon. On the ground, any GPS receiver contains a computer that 'triangulates' its own position by getting bearings from three of the four satellites. The result is provided in the form of a geographic position - longitude and latitude - for most receivers , with in a few metres. If the receiver is also equipped with a display screen that shows a map, the position can be shown on the map. When a fourth satellite can be received, the receiver/computer can calculate the altitude as well as the geographic position. If you are moving, your receiver may also be able to calculate your speed and direction of travel and give you estimated times of arrival to specified destinations. Intermodal Freight Transport A freight village is a complex set of facilities where all the activities relating to transport, logistics and distribution of goods are carried out on a commercial basis by various operators, who can either be the owners or the tenants of the spaces (warehouses, storage areas, offices, car parks etc .). lt must be equipped with public facilities and, if possible, include public services for the staff and users. Other names for a freight village are: logistics park/centre, transport centre or logistics hub. A freight village enables change from one given transport mode to another (modal shift) through a set of technologies that facilitate the transfer. It is served by several transport modes (road, rail, deep sea, inland waterway, air) to encourage intermodal transport for the handling of goods. The most common examples of modal shifts are: train (rail) to lorry (road); barge (inland waterway) to train or lorry; airplane (air) to lorry. A freight village requires different activities such as warehousing, economic activities, support activities, unified management. The warehouse is the infrastructure where the transport operator mostly performs his business. This activity may include the division of the goods into smaller quantities for a more functional distribution. Logistics hubs need active distribution centres and several industrial activities in the neighbourhood that can exploit the modal shift facilities within the village. Support activities include support services like lorry rest areas, office space, restaurants, banking, shops and hotels. Unified Management requires that the village is often under the management of a single entity. A freight village is the right solution to satisfy the increasing requirements of a complex business based on transport. In order to work well it is imperative that the village is run by a single body, either public or private. Real Estate Expertize and Management: Real Estate Commissioner The California Department of Real Estate is headed by the Real Estate Commissioner, who is appointed by the governor. The Commissioner is responsible for determining administrative policies, enforcing the California real estate law, and regulating certain real estate syndicates, real property securities transactions, subdivisions, and licensing procedures. The Commissioner has issued a regulation, called the Code of Ethics and professional Conduct, which is binding upon all licensees. The Code of Ethics does not permit “pocket listings.” (A pocket listing occurs when a licensee takes a listing on a property, but keeps it a secret, so that no other licensee can earn any part of the commission. This 16 practice harms the seller because it restricts the number of licensees who are looking for buyers for the property.) The enforcement of real estate law in California is very much divided. The Real Estate Commissioner has the sole authority to issue, restrict, suspend, and revoke all licenses. While the Commissioner can also fine a licensee, the Commissioner cannot award monetary damages to an injured party. Only the courts can do this. The Commissioner cannot prosecute a licensee for any violation of the law. The district attorney would prosecute the violator. Notice that the court system can award monetary damages and put someone in jail, but only the Commissioner can take action against a person’s license. The Real Estate Commissioner also heads the Real Estate Advisory Commission, which is a group of ten advisors, appointed by the Commissioner to assist him or her. Six of the members must be licensed brokers, and the group must be geographically representative, with no more than three members from any one county. When a formal complaint is filed against a licensee, the Real Estate Commissioner investigates. A hearing may be held under the Administrative Procedures Act (which is found in the Government Code), after an accusation has been served upon the licensee. Action, in general, must be filed within three years of the act (longer limits are permitted in some cases for fraud, misrepresentation or false promise) A Topographic Survey: Maps, Angles A topographic survey is a survey made to secure data from which may be made a topographic map indicating the relief or elevation and irregularities of the land surface. (1) Maps are based on measurements of distances, directions and heights. Surveying is the name given to the methods of making these measurements. The simplest and most commonly used method of measuring the distance between two points on the ground is called chain surveying. It is very similar to the way in which the distance between two points on a piece of paper is measured using a foot-rule. In chain surveying the place of the foot-rule is taken by a chain which is laid down in a straight line between the two points. Small areas are often surveyed entirely by chain survey provided the ground is not too rough. (2) Angles in surveying are measured with special instruments called theodolites. In its simplest form the theodolite is a telescope mounted above a horizontal circular scale, which is rather like a protractor. It is marked in degrees, minutes and fractions of minutes. (There are 60 minutes one degree). Theodolite also allows the measurement of angles in a vertical plane, such as the angle between the horizont and the top of a tall building or hill. A Topographic Survey: Route Survey (3) Route survey is a survey necessary for the location and construction of transportation or communication lines such as highways, railroads, canals, transmission lines and pipe-lines. The preliminary work consists of a topographic survey. Mine surveying makes use of the principles of land, topographic and route surveying with modifications in practice made necessary by altered conditions. Both surface and underground surveys are required. City surveying is the term frequently applied to the operation of laying out lots and to the municipal surveys made in connection with the construction of streets, water supply systems and sewers. (4) The maps and data produced by surveyors are used by civil engineers in many ways. Before construction begins the exact position of the various parts of the dam, or the track of the railway or road, are fixed on the ground by using normal surveying methods. In choosing the site for a dam, for instance, an engineer can study on a map the courses of all the streams in the area. By reading the contours he can calculate the amount of water which can be stored by building a dam of a given height in a certain place. In the same way the results of soil survey marked on a map will give the engineer vital information about the foundations. When deciding the route of a railway or road, the gradients, radii of curves, heights of embankments and depth of cutting can be calculated from data supplied by the surveyor. In case of a tunneling which is usually carried out from both ends simultaneously a base line is set out on the ground at each end and the course followed by the tunnellers is continually checked by measuring both levels and angles with reference to the base line. By this means it is possible to make the two tunnels meet accurately or within 1 or 2 inches over a distance of a mile or more. A Topographic Survey: Terrestrial Photogrammetry (5) Terrestrial photogrammetry or photographic surveying from ground stations had been found to be a useful addition to other methods in mapping of mountainous areas. The work consists of taking photographs from two or more control stations and in utilizing the photographs for the projection of the terrain in plan and elevation. (6) Surveying by the methods described above is very laborious. The surveyor has to work over all the ground step by step. A great deal of time is saved by modern methods of photographic air survey. Photographs taken from airplanes in flight have been used as aids to map-making since World War I. If such photographs are to be really useful the height and position of the airplane at the instant of taking the photographs must be accurately known. The development since 1940 of radar methods for finding the position of aircraft has increased the role of photogrammetry in surveying. Air photographs may be taken with the camera either pointing vertically downward, or at an angle. Vertical photographs are preferred for map-making especially when height and contours are required. The advantages of air survey are the speed with which the field work is accomplished, the wealth of details secured and used in locations otherwise difficult or impossible of access. Air survey is widely used by explorers in investigating the Arctic zone. Библиографический список 1. Пособие по английскому языку для инженерно-строительных вузов/А.И. Бурлак [и др.]. – М: Высшая школа, 1975. 2. Камминг Дж. Английский для студентов архитектурных и строительных специальностей. – М: Астрель, АСТ, 2004. 3. Гарагуля C.И. Английский язык для студентов строительных специальностей. – Ростов н/Д: Феникс, 2011. 4. PatriziaCaruzzo.Flash on English for Construction.– ESP Series, 2012. 5. S. Cunningham, Peter Moor.Cutting Edge.– Pearson Education Limited, 2013. 6. Top Grammar/ Rachel Finnie [and others]. Helbling Languages, 2010. 7. Murphy R. English Grammar in Use for Intermediate Students. – Cambridge: CUP, 2004. 8. Children’s Britannica Encyclopedia, 1996. 9. Hewitt K. Understanding Britain. – Oxford: Perspective, 2000. 10. Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture. – Harlow: Longman, 2005. 11. Oregon State University. General Catalog. – Corvallis, Oregon, 2014. 12. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia [Интернет-ресурс].-Режим доступа: http://en.wikipedia.org. |