Н. Г. Веселовская английский язык для специальностей землеустройство Иземельный кадастр
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16. Прочитайте текст 14C и раскройте содержание рассматриваемых в нем проблем: Text 14С Land Property Relations At any social and economic formation the society remains the principal owner of a territorial-land resource delegating to particular land users separate functions and open for modification rights on usage of the land property. Therefore all system of the land-property relations has mainly limitation character restraining the rights of separate owners in a favor to public interests. The land-property relations are a part of a special social and economic category not only because of specificity of land as a unique plant of universal multiple-objective interests, but also by virtue of a duality of state of the land fund participating in public reproduction as the natural factor and goods at the same time. Accordingly the set of public interests concerning land can be divided into 2 groups: (1) interests concerning efficient assimilation of natural properties of a land resource (technological aspect); (2) interests concerning money-goods parameters of the landownership (social and economic aspect). Allocating resources the first group of public interests is guided by parameters of functional-economic structure of land fund: scales, proportions and priorities of its allocation depending on a degree of economic assimilation; aspects and categories of lands; types of their target usage; intensity of maintenance and productivity of lands, their geological and ecological state. The public and individual interests of this group will usually be synchronized with maintaining the most efficient functional-economic structure of the territorial land fund, and the originating contraventions have non-antagonistic character. As a rule they are solved on the basis of market self-regulation. The second group of public interests is directed to social and economic structures of the landownership depending on composition, combination and proportions of its particular forms. Here we talk about proportions of the landownership of the state, local authorities, different types of enterprise structures, different groups of the population, foreign land tenants. Thus interests of the society are oriented on optimal, from the point of view, usage of land resources, and interests of the owners by giving to them the acquired property rights on land irrespective of effectiveness of its maintenance. As a result of contravention between interests of different levels and groups of the population sometimes there are serious conflicts. 17. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст 14D: Text 14D Necessity of Economic and Ecological Safety A land resource, as a plant of the real estate, can not be physically withdrawn and displaced, processed and dissolved in another production. This specific characteristic of the landownership allows keeping it in a focus of public attention and monitoring, to stipulate it by a complex of regulating demands and limitations. Thus the possibility to provide priority of public interests above individual always remains, the society has free-hand in modification of standards of land use and provision on the rights of land tenants. The peculiarity of the landownership creates the objective reasons and technological possibilities for interposition of authorized bodies in correlation and mutual relation between people, originating from allocation, redistribution, usage and restoration of land resources. This interposition can have both — administrative and economic basis, to be more or less command-bureaucratic or liberal-market. But anyway the society remains the principal owner of territorial-land resources, regulating the land-property relations in different legal ways. Serious problem of land use today is the aggravating contravention between interests of the land users and possibility of conservation of useful properties of land resources. Abusive usage of lands has resulted in lowering productivity of agricultural structure. The critical state of a land complex of Russia and its ecosystem in whole is a very important problem. Certainly, the indicated problems were not a surprise. They cannot be considered, as it is done by some politicians and journalists, as outcome of unreasoned destroying of an old command management system and its substitution by a more liberal market system of socially-economic regulating. On the contrary, the necessity of such conversions was historically determined by long-time accruing of the social and economic, political, ideological, natural and ecological contraventions which have become excessive, and clearly seen at the moment of total reforming of the settled social structure. Lesson 15. IMPORTANCE QF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION 1. Прочитайте следующие слова: Disturbed, ugliness, wildlife, beyond, purifying, widespread, endangering, associated, mean, significantly, jointly, wealthiest, emission, ozone, controversy, gully, splash, nuisance.
Widespread cries, gully erosion, chemicals and fertilizers, industry waters, great publicity, trust and support, ugliness of billboards and trash, strict pollution control, considerable improvement, wildlife reservation, beyond the concern of a single country, sheet and rill erosion, raindrop splash, the burning of fuels.
Text 15А Environmental Protection Scientific and technological progress of the twenty-first century resulted in widespread mechanization, automated lines computerized management, spaceships, atomic power stations, pipelines, new roads and highways. But it can not be denied that the price for rapid industrial development is very high: natural resources are exhausted, the ecological balance of the planet is disturbed; some species of flora and fauna disappear; city and industry waters, chemicals and fertilizers are endangering lakes, rivers and ponds. Big cities have a problem with air pollution: the "Killer Smog" caused some 3 500 — 4000 deaths in London in December, 1952. Progress can be blamed for all these environmental problems. In recent years the pollution problems have received great publicity. The Environmental movement associated with no political party has gained widespread trust and support. Environmental activities stress that the problem is caused by industrial pollution and the automobile. Long-established environmental groups warn that acid rains threaten many forests. The media's begun to campaign against the ugliness of billboards, tin cans and trash. Many people started to realize that to keep air and water clean, strict pollution control is necessary. The protection of natural resources and wildlife is becoming a political program in every country. Numerous antipollution acts passed in different countries led to considerable improvements in environment. In many countries purifying systems for treatment of industrial waters have been installed, measures have been taken to protect rivers and seas from oil waters. Wildlife reservation models of undisturbed nature are being developed in some parts of the world. But the environmental problems have grown beyond the concern of a single country. Their solution requires the cooperation of all nations.
Protect, trash, litter, defense, impoverish, exhaust, controversy, discussion, combat, fight, tillage, treatment.
Adoption, reduce, unbalanced, steep, management, unnoticed, mismanagement, non-adoption, gentle, balanced, reversible, increase, disturbed, noticed, irreversible, disappear, undisturbed, decomposition, appear, composition.
Овражная эрозия, научный и технический прогресс, проблемы загрязнения, широко распространенное доверие и поддержка, экологический баланс, подвергать опасности, кислотные дожди, заповедник дикой природы, сотрудничество всех государств, быстрое промышленное развитие, обработка промышленных вод, консервные банки, компания против уродства досок для объявлений, очистительные системы.
1. Проблемы загрязнения получили большую огласку. 2. Существуют разные виды эрозии. 3. Эрозия почвы увеличивается, если нет растительного покрова. 4. Меры консервации могут уменьшить опасность эрозии почвы как водной, так и ветровой. 5. Правильные методы обработки и земледелия могут решить проблемы эрозии почвы на фермах. 6. Почвенная эрозия — это естественный процесс. 7. Ветровая эрозия зависит от разных факторов. 8. Овражная эрозия — наиболее драматическая демонстрация эрозии.
Unnoticed, detachment, emission, improvement, industrial, disturbed, pollution, reservation, deforestation, depletion, environmental, twentieth, disappear, different, installation, requirement, considerable.
1. Many, in, purifying, been, have, installed, countries, systems. 2. Price, industrial, rapid, high, development, the, for, is, very. 3. Received, have, recently, the, great, pollution, publicity, problems. 4. Ecological, of, planet, the, disturbed, is, balance, the. 5. Been, to, measures, from, protect, have, and, rivers, sees, waters, taken, oil. 6. The, requires, nations, the, all, cooperation, solution, of. 7. Different, in, antipollution, countries, acts, passed.
То lead, to take, to grow, to exhaust, to mean, to protect, to lose, to occur, to cover, to have, to consider.
1. Numerous antipollution acts passed in different countries. 2. The environmental problems are caused by industrial pollution. 3. Purifying systems have been installed for treatment of industrial waters. 4. The solution requires the cooperation of all nations. 5. In recent years the pollution problems have received great publicity. 6. Measures have been taken to protect rivers and seas from oil water.
1. Specialists have just installed purifying systems for treatment of industrial waters. 2. Recently workers have taken necessary measures to protect rivers and seas from oil waters. 3. Acid rains threaten many forests. 4. In some parts of the world people are developing wildlife reservation models of undisturbed nature now. 5. The solution of the environmental problems requires the cooperation of all nations.
1. What are advantages of industrial development? 2. What are disadvantages of industrial development? 3. What do Environmental activists do? 4. What has been done to improve the environment in many countries? 5. Why do the environmental problems require the cooperation of all nations?
Text 15В Ecological Problems Global concentration of atmospheric pollution seriously threatens the ozone layer. It means the increasing concentration of greenhouse gases and increased ozone depletion. This threatens to lead to dramatic climatic changes or global warming. To reduce these threats, the scientists of the various countries of the world say that global emissions must be curtailed. A number of gases contribute significantly to the stock of greenhouse gases. The burning fuels by automobiles and industries are main sources of greenhouse gases. Less damaging sources include deforestation, animal husbandry, wet rice cultivation, decomposition of waste, and coal mining. Because incomes and consumption are higher in the wealthiest countries, per capita emissions are much higher. For example, the level of per capita emissions in the United States is more than twice bigger than that in Europe, 19 times higher than that in Africa, and 25 times higher than that in India. A study jointly sponsored by the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environment Program shows that global warming is growing. It says that if current emission trends continue, the mean global temperatures may rise 3 °C by the end of the twenty-first century. The potentially catastrophic consequences of climate changes have caused widespread cries for joint preventive policy to combat environmental pollution, concentration of greenhouse gases and ozone depletion. Statesmen and scientists stress that responsibility for reducing emissions must be divided across the members of the international community. The share of responsibility may be remarkably different depending on industrial development, income, social structure and political orientation of a country. There is great controversy over the extent to which each government must control the emissions produced by its local population, industry and agriculture. 16. Прочитайте текст 15C и раскройте содержание рассматриваемых в нем проблем: Text 15С Soil Erosion — Causes and Effects Erosion is a natural and continuous process. Soils are created through erosion of parent material and either local deposition elsewhere. Erosion is defined as the detachment, or uptake, and transport over a certain distance of material of the upper layer of the earth crust by an agent, like water, wind, or ice. This mass movement of soil particles, is part of the process of soil degradation. Before erosion takes effect, the degradation process often has started with qualitative changes in the soil, like loss of nutrients, loss of organic materials, reduced soil life and loss of soil structure. Soil erosion is one of the forms of soil degradation along with soil compaction, low organic matter, loss of soil structure, poor internal drainage, salinisation, and soil acidity problems. These other forms of soil degradation, serious in themselves, usually contribute to accelerated soil erosion. Soil erosion may be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed, or it may occur at an alarming rate causing serious loss of topsoil. The loss of soil from farmland may be reflected in reduced crop production potential, lower surface water quality, and damaged drainage network.» Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process on all land. The agents of soil erosion are water and wind, each contributing a significant amount of soil loss each year in different countries. Water erosion depends on four factors: rainfall, soil type, slope gradient, and soil use/vegetation cover. Loss of soil structure becomes often most visible in encrustation of the soil. Both rainfall and runoff factors must be considered in assessing a water erosion problem. The impact of raindrop on the soil surface can break down soil aggregates and disperse the aggregate material. Lighter aggregate materials, such as very fine sand, silt, clay and organic matter can be easily removed by the raindrop splash and runoff water; greater raindrop energy or runoff amounts might be required to move the larger sand and gravel particles. Soil erosion potential is increased if the soil has no or very little vegetative cover of plants and/or crop residues. Plant and residue cover protects the soil from raindrop impact and splash, tends to slow down the movement of surface runoff and allows excess surface water to infiltrate. Wind erosion less common, but again takes place after vegetation has been lost and when soil particles are loosened. Early signs of wind erosion include deposition of sand particles around plants and micro- ripples on the surface of exposed areas. The final extreme is the classic sand desert dune structures. The lack of windbreaks (trees, shrubs, residue, etc.) allows the wind to put soil particles into motion for greater distances thus increasing the abrasion and soil erosion. Knolls are usually exposed and suffer the most. Sheet erosion is the most common form of erosion. Unprotected soil particles are loosened by trampling, through wind erosion and by the impact of rainfall. The soil particles are then transported by rainwater surface flow to the river and stream systems. Sheet erosion is characterized by a general lowering of the soil level, leaving raised pedestals where the root mass of the remaining vegetation protects it. Sheet erosion is soil movement from raindrop splash resulting in the breakdown of soil surface structure and surface runoff; it occurs rather uniformly over the slope and may go unnoticed until most of the productive top- soil has been lost. Rill erosion results when surface runoff concentrates forming small yet well-defined channels. These channels are called rills when they are small enough to not interfere with field machinery operations. The same eroded channels are known as gullies when they become a nuisance factor in normal tillage. Gully erosion is the most obvious and dramatic demonstration of erosion, although in most areas actually less significant in terms of total land degradation. Gully erosion rarely occurs without sheet erosion. It can also be triggered by erosion along livestock tracks, footpaths and road edges. The process can start with "rills" and end up with gullies that are tens of meters deep. There are farms that are loosing large quantities of topsoil and subsoil each year due to fully erosion. Surface runoff, causing gull formation or the enlarging of existing gullies, is usually the result of improper outlet design for local surface and subsurface drainage systems. The soil instability of fully banks, usually associated with seepage of ground water, leads to sloughing and slumping of bank slopes. Such failures usually occur during spring months when the soil water conditions are most conductive to the problem. Poor construction, or inadequate maintenance, of surface drainage systems, uncontrolled livestock access, and cropping too close to both stream banks has led to bank erosion problems. The effects of soil erosion are complex. Some of the impacts may appear to be reversible by suitable soil conservation programmes and improving cultivation practices, whereas there are other types of degradation which are irreversible. The latter type includes land lost by gulling, or cases of severe sheet erosion where the soil cover has been removed to a great extent. In cases where degradation is reversible it is generally difficult to assess the actual extent and impact of land degradation as farmers do convert their land to less demanding uses or increase the level of inputs. Methodologies for prediction of soil erosion have been developed since the early thirties. Many farmers have already made significant progress in dealing with soil erosion problems on their farms. However, because of continued advances in soil management and crop production technology that have maintained or increased yields in spite of soil erosion, others have not been aware of the increasing problem on farmland. Awareness usually occurs only when property is damaged and productive areas of soil are lost. Certain conservation measures can reduce soil erosion by both water and wind. Tillage and cropping practices, as well as land management practices, directly affect the overall soil erosion problem and solutions on a farm. When crop rotation or changing tillage practices are not enough to control erosion on a field a combination of approaches or more extreme measures might be necessary. For example, contour plowing, strip cropping, or terracing may be considered. |