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The lymphatic system consists of capillaries, nodes, ducts and lymphatic vessels, spread through the whole body (Fig. 13-1). About 2 liters of lymph fill the lymphatic vessels. The lymphatic capillaries drain away excess tissue fluid that does not return to the blood capillaries. Then, they are to absorb protein from the tissue fluid and return it to the bloodstream. Before the lymph reaches the veins, it flows through a series of filters, called lymph nodes, where bacteria and other foreign substances are destroyed. Lymphatic capillaries made of endothelium allow for easy passage of soluble materials and water. The lymphatic capillary begins blindly and the other end of it communicates with the larger lymphatic vessel. The lymphatic vessels are thin-walled and delicate, they have the valves to prevent backflow in the same way. The lymphatic vessels include superficial and deep sets. They accompany the similar veins. The lymphatic vessels are named according to their location (see Fig. 13-1). The two terminal vessels are the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct. The right lymphatic duct receives the lymph from the right side of the head, neck, thorax and the right arm and empties into the right subclavian vein. The rest of the body is drained by the thoracic duct, which is larger than the right lymphatic duct, and it empties into the left subclavian vein. Lymph is moved by compression of the lymphatic vessels as skeletal muscles contract during movement. The lymph nodes are made of lymphoid tissue, which is characterized by removal of impurities (carbon particles, cancer cells, pathogenic organisms, dead blood cells) through filtration and phagocytosis and production of antibodies (substances in the blood that aid in combating infection) or attacking of foreign invaders directly. The lymph nodes are small, rounded masses covered with fibrous connective capsule, they have the hilus (the exit) for lymph vessels carrying the lymph out of the node. The nodes are the filters of lymph. Another lymphoid masses are tonsils. They are designed to filter tissue fluid. The thymus is located in the upper thorax beneath the sternum. It has been considered to be a part of the lymphatic system. The thymus plays a key role in the development of the immune system before birth and during the first few months of infancy. The thymus is most active during early life. After puberty (період статевої зрілості), the tissue undergoes changes, it shrinks in size and is replaced by connective tissue. The spleen is an organ designed to filter the blood. It's located in the abdominal cavity under the diaphragm, it is soft with a purplish color. It's a flattened organ about 12.5 to 16 cm long and 5 to 7.5 cm wide. The spleen has an unusually large blood supply. The function of the spleen are listed below:
Exercise 4. Make up a plan of the text. Exercise 5. Translate the passages about the thymus and the spleen. Exercise 6. Find English equivalents in the text. Дозволяють легко просочуватись розчинним речовинам і воді; лімфатичні і кровоносні капіляри; всмоктують білки з тканинної рідини; з'єднують із більшими лімфатичними судинами; права лімфатична протока; грудинна протока; лімфатичний капіляр з одного боку сліпий (закритий); рухається під тиском; вузли; мигдалини; за грудиною; зменшується у розмірі; очищають кров. Exercise 7. Answer the following questions.
  vessels in grey area drain into right lymphatic duel vessels in white area drain into thoracic duct axilli lymph nodv> right lymphatic duct mammary els * lymph vesse lumbar lymph nodes *\1 \ iliac ... lymph nodes occipital lymph nodes cervical lymph nodes femoral vessels popliteal lymph nodes tibial lymph nodes lymph nodes and vessels of the head Fig. 13—1. The lymphatic system II. Grammar Exercises Exercise 1. Read and translate the words, pay attention to the suffixes.
Exercise 2. Note the translation of the Ukrainian sentence. They say that he lives here. Кажуть, що він тут живе. It is said that he lives here. One says that he lives here. Exercise 3. Name the parts of speech of the words in bold type. Translate the sentences.
Exercise 4. Define the role and function of participles in each sentence. Translate. A. 1. The therapeutist examined the patient yesterday. 2. The patient was examined by the therapeutist attentively. 3. The patient examined by the therapeutist yesterday felt bad. 4. The examined patient was ill with heart disease. 8. 1. The doctor saw the changed condition of the patient. 2. That was why he changed the administrations (призначення) to this patient. 3. The administrations were changed to restore his health rapidly. 4. The nurse did not forget to carry out the administrations changed by the doctor. C. 1. The delivered lecture was very interesting. 2. The lecture delivered interested everybody. 3. The lecture delivered yesterday by Prof. Smirnov was very interesting. Exercise 5. Define the Objective Participle Construction and translate the sentences.
III. Independent Work: Disorders of Lymphatic System and Lymphoid Tissue Exercise 1. Write down the following clinical terms into your vocabulary, learn their pronunciation.
Exercise 2. Read and translate the text. Disorders of Lymphatic System and Lymphoid Tissue There are many different disorders of the lymphatic system. In inflammation of the lymphatic vessels called lymphangitis, red streaks can be seen extending along an extremity. Septicemia or blood poisoning may occur because of streptococci. Elephantiasis is a great enlargement of the lower extremities resulting from blockage of lymphatic vessels with tiny parasities earned by insects (flies or mosoquitos). The disease is common in Asia and in some of the Pacific islands. No cure is known. Lymphadenitis is the inflammation of the lymph nodes, they become larger and tender. This condition reflects the body's attempt to combat an infection. Cervical lymphadenitis is a symptom of measles, searlet fever, septic sore throat, diphtheria. Lymphadenopathy is the disease of lymph nodes. Splenomegaly is enlargement of the spleen, accompanies acute infections, such as scarlet fever, typhoid fever, syphilis. Hodgkin's disease is the malignant disease with enlargement of lymph nodes, commonly occurs in young men. The nodes in the neck, armpit, thorax and groin enlarge. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy have been used with good results. Any tumor benign or malignant occuring in the lymphoid tissue is called a lymphoma. Lymphosarcoma is a malignant tumor. It is a very rare disease. Early surgery is the only possible cure. Exercise 3. Write out sentences with participles from the text. Name their forms and functions. Exercise 4. Translate into English. 1. Вона бачила через вікно, що йшов сильний дощ. 2. Він хотів, щоб пацієнт одужав швидше. 3. Ти вже маєш переписаний текст? 4. Медсестра вже зробила перев'язку. UNIT FOURTEEN
I. Speaking: Body Defenses After careful study of this unit you should be able to:
Exercise 1. Learn the following words by heart. allergy ['агізсізі] алергія antibody [.aenti'bDdi] антитіло antigen ['gentidpn] антиген antiserum [,centi'sierom] антисироватка acquired [sk'waisd] набутий artificial [,a:ti'fiji3l] штучний autoimmunity[,D:trji'mju:niti] автоімунітет gammaglobulin[,gaem3'giDbjolin] гамаглобулін irritate ['iriteit] подразнювати immunity [i'mju:niti] імунітет immunization[i,mju:nai'zeijh] імунізація inflammation[jnfb'meijh] запалення inbornfinbo:n] вроджений lymphocyte- лімфоцит macrophage[,т£екгоТеіе1з] макрофаг toxin['roksin] отрута, токсин toxoid['tnksoid] токсоїд, анатоксин vaccine['vaskskn] вакцина pus [p.\s] гній to get rid of - позбутися harmful agent ['haimful'eidpnt] шкідлива речовина Exercise 2, Read the text, translate it, make a plan of it. Body Defenses Against Disease In our environment there is a great number of organisms harmful to the human being. The job of protecting us from these harmful agents belongs in part to certain blood cells and the lymphatic system, which together make up our immune system. The human body has the ability to produce toxins, which damage the body. Inflammation is the body's effort to get rid of anything that irritates it. Irritants can be bacteria, friction, chemicals, X-rays, fire, cuts or blows, etc. Cells infected with viruses and certain other agents produce interferon, the substance that prevents infection of other cells. Immunity is the power of an individual to resist or overcome the effects of a particular disease or other harmful agents. There are two kinds of immunity: inborn and acquired. Acquired immunity can be natural or artificial; and also it can be active or passive. Each person has his own inborn immunity. Acquired immunity is obtained during the life of the person. The immunity response is based on a reaction between antigens and antibodies. Antigens are any foreign substances entering the body. Lymphocytes react to these foreign substances, they can destroy foreign cells directly, or release substances that stimulate other lymphocytes and macrophages in the destruction of foreign cells (clones of plasma cells). These plasma cells produce specific antibodies that circulate in the blood as gamma globulin fraction. Each time a person is invaded by the organisms of a disease, his cells may produce antibodies that provide immunity against the infection. Such immunity may last for years and in some cases it lasts for a whole life. It is active immunity. Passive immunity is acquired by a fetus through the placenta and by infants for about six months. Nursing an infant can lengthen this period of protection owing to the presence of specific antibodies in breast milk. Artificially acquired immunity is created by vaccination or immunization in active or passive ways. Active immunization is immunization with vaccines. Passive immunization is administration of immune serum (antiserum). Here we can name some disorders of the immune system:
- immune deficiency disease is failure in the immune system. It can be hereditary or acquired (AIDS); - cancer may be partly due to failure of immune system, because it destroys body cells. Exercise 3. What are the Latin/Greek equivalents of the following English words? Cells, tissue, allergy, disease, substance, milk, bacterium, antibody, toxin, lymphocyte, macrophage. Exercise 4. Answer the questions. What do we call:
Exercise 5. Give some examples of inborn immunity, acquired immunity. What is the basic difference between inborn and acquired immunity? Exercise 6. Answer the following questions.
Exercise 7. Read the information and answer the questions.
Immunity can be provided artificially by vaccination and other forms of immunization. A vaccine is a preparation containing the offending organisms - usually in a weakened form that will not cause the actual disease. Currently there are vaccines for polio, measles, rubella, mumps, chicken pox, shingles, and some strains of influenza. Exercise 8. Translate into English.
4. Рак може бути причиною порушень імунної системи організму, оскільки він руйнує клітини організму. II. Grammar Exercises Exercise 1. Read and translate the following word combinations. Name the function of participle II in them.
9) the vaccine given for mumps; 10) the made tests. Exercise 2. Translate the sentences, state the forms of the verbs. 1. Professor Petrov delivered the lecture in physiology yesterday. 2. Professor Petrov has already delivered the lecture in physiology. 3. Professor Petrov has not yet delivered the lecture in physiology. 4. Yesterday we got interesting findings after our experiments on animals. 5. We have just got some interesting findings after our experiments on animals. 6. We have not yet got any interesting findings after our experiments on animals. Exercise 3. Find substitutes for the words and word combinations in bold type. 1. Will you take this medicine? Try it. You will feel an immediate relief. 2. When a doctor is listening to the patient's lungs and heart he must put a stethoscope on the patient's chest. 3. Students usually go through the necessary course of treatment at a student's hospital. 4. His pulse turned out to be faster than normal. 5. Oh, I'm glad you have completely recovered. 6. A doctor does his best to stop the process of patient's disease. 7. My friend tried to make me quiet. 8. 1 want very much to go in for sports. 9. This worker got a written permission to be absent from work because of his illness. 10. All my fellow students managed to do this work successfully. Exercise 4. Make up sentences using the table. Translate them. He The doctor I You They is said are seen was heard were noticed entering the hospital, crying loudly in the room, walking along the street, operating the patient, speaking with a surgeon. Exercise 5. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the underlined words. 1. Я часто відсилаю листи додому. 2. Я щойно відіслала цей лист до Англії. 3. Вчора я послала лист своїм батькам. 4. Вчора я відіслала лист своїй подрузі до того, як пішла на лекцію. 5. Які фотографії ти посилаєш зараз у конверті? 6. Я відішлю звіт наступного понеділка. Exercise 6. Translate into English using the Objective or Subjective Participial Constructions. 1. Його мати хотіла, щоб він став хорошим лікарем. 2. Кажуть, що він вступає до медичного університету. 3. Чути, як медсестра готує інструменти до операції. 4. Він бачив, як я робила ін'єкцію. 5. Бачили, що вони готували пацієнтів до операції. 6. Вона бачила, як він брав книги у бібліотеці. III. Independent Work: AIDS Exercise 1. Read the text. Make a vocabulary of new words. AIDS AIDS means acquired immune deficiency syndrome. It is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The only identified routes of transmission are through the blood and semen contaminated with the HIV. Transmission can be through sexual contact, exposure to contamined blood and blood products (transfusions, sharing needles used for illegal IV drugs, accidental needle puncture, broken area on the skin directly exposed to contaminated blood), and from pregnant female to unborn child. When the HIV enters the bloodstream, it attacks the immune system and weakens the person's ability to fight disease. Target cells are T-cells (type of white blood cells called lymphocytes that are produced in the thymus). Although they do not secrete antibodies, T-cells are essential for normal immune function. Without them, cell-mediated immunity deteriorates, allowing opportunistic diseases to invade the body. In response to this invasion, the body begins to produce antibodies. Within two weeks to three months after infection, these antibodies can usually be detected by a blood test. There are three possible outcomes for individuals who become infected by HIV:
Currently, no cure exists for AIDS. All asymptomatic HIV positive persons require periodic T4 cell tests (also called CD4 cell count) usually every six months to monitor the status of their immune system. When the CD4 cell count falls below 500/mm3 (normal is 1000/ mm3), pharmacotherapy is often initiated, followed by laboratory monitoring of the T4 cells count every three months (AIDS Guide, 1992). Because of the increased risk of opportunistic infections, additional screening tests include:
Exercise 2. Make a summary to retell the text. Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.
UNIT FIFTEEN
I. Speaking: Respiratory System After careful study of this unit you should be able to:
Exercise 1. Learn the words by heart, pay attention to their Latin/Greek equivalents.
Exercise 2. Read the following word combinations and translate them, using a dictionary. To breathe with lungs; pulmonary ventilation; nasal cavities; vocal organ; air movement; gas exchanges; respiratory rates; diffusion of gases. Exercise 3. Read the text, translate and retell it. Respiration Respiration is the process by which oxygen is obtained from the environment and transported to the cells, and carbon dioxide is exchanged from the cells. Respiration includes three phases: 1. Pulmonary ventilation is normally accomplished by inspiration and expiration. 2. The diffusion of gases includes the passage of oxygen from air sacs into the blood and of carbon dioxide out of the blood. 3. The transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide by the circulating blood. The respiratory system includes the nasal cavities, the pharynx, the larynx, the trachea, the bronchi and the lungs with their conducting tubes and air sacs. The nasal cavities filter, warm and moisten air, which we inhale. The pharynx (throat) carries air into the respiratory tract and food into the digestive tract. The larynx (voice organ) contains vocal cords. The trachea is the windpipe. The bronchi are the continuations of the trachea, they are two in number; they enter the lungs and then subdivide again and again making the bronchial tree. The smallest subdivisions of the bronchi are bronchioles. The lungs are covered with the membrane called pleura. The pleura not only encloses the lung but also lines the chest walls. Mediastinum is the space for the heart, great blood vessels, esophagus, trachea, and lymph nodes; it is located between the lungs. The lungs consist of lobes, which subdivide into lobules. The tiny air sacs in the lungs are called alveoli. Physiology of respiration includes inhalation or inspiration (when air comes into the lungs), and exhalation or expiration (when air goes out of the lungs). The respiratory control centers, located in the medulla and pons of the brain stem, regulate the process of respiration. Respiration is regulated so that the level of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and acid are kept within certain limits. The control centers regulate the rate, depth, and rhythm of respiration. Exercise 4. Describe three phases of respiration. Exercise 5. Answer the following questions.
Exercise 6. Describe the structure of the respiratory system. Use Fig. 15-1.  II. Grammar Exercises Exercise 1. Read and translate word combinations and sentences with participles I, II in the role of: a)noun attributes: a running student, a moving train, working people, a connected line, a seen film, an explained task, given food, painted eyes, a broken glass, a clamped burner, burning sulfur, a dissolved alkali, a diluted acid, a closed chemist's, an organized meeting, a well-made test. b) |