Учебное пособие для слушателей программы дополнительного (к высшему) образования Переводчик в сфере профессиональной коммуникации
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H: Why do you always have to bring work home with you? If you 9…… (not agree) to take on that new job, you10 …..(have) much more free time now. S: Yes, and if I11 ……(not take on) that job, we 12…… (not have) much money now. H: That's true, but I don't like you working so much. S: Well never mind. We've got a week’s holiday soon. Just think! In two week’s time, we13 ……… (lie) on a warm sunny beach - that's if I14 …… (can get) the time off work of course. H: What do you mean, 'if? S: Well, everything's very busy at the moment. And if we 15 …… (get) any more orders, I just 16 …… (not see) how I can leave the office. H: What? But that's ridiculous. B. Dear Angela, Thanks for your letter, it was nice to hear from you. And yes, I would like to come and see you in Spain. If I17…… (save up) enough money when the summer holidays start, I18…… (try) and come then - if that19……… (be) O.K. Otherwise, I'll come over in the autumn because I'm sure I 20 …. (save up) enough by October - if I 21 …. (not lose) my job by then! Unfortunately, lots of people in our company are being made redundant and it could be me next. If I22 ….. (have) any sense, I23 ….. (leave) this job ages ago. Still it could be worse I suppose. I was delighted to hear about your promotion - it's great news. If you24 ……(keep on) getting promoted, you25 …. (run) the whole school soon. And it sounds like the weather's been really good over there. It's been terrible here. I don't think it's been dry once this month. If it 26 ……. (be) dry, I 27….(not notice). Oh well, we're hoping it'll get better soon. If it28 …….(still rain) at the weekend, we29 ……(decide) we'll try and emigrate! Have you heard from Charlotte by the way? She said she was going to phone you to tell you that she's pregnant. If she 30 ………(not phone you up yet),3l ….. (not tell) her that I've already told you her news, will you? All the best, Jade Words other than if Conditionals can also be introduced by the following conjunctions: unless even if if only as/so long as assuming(that) on (the) condition (that) provided/providing (that) In questions: suppose/supposing (that) what if imagine 14. Rewrite the sentences replacing if with the most appropriate conjunction. Example: Mr Davidson says he'll come and give a talk at the conference if we pay him a reasonable fee. (supposing that / unless / on condition that) Mr Davidson says he'll come and give a talk at the conference on condition that we pay him a reasonable fee. 1. I won’t help him if he doesn’t ask me properly. (provided / unless / as long as) 2. If I could get a job, life here would be perfect. (what if / even if / if only) 3. If you had a lot of money, do you think you would give up work? (Supposing that / Providing that / As long as) 4. If the train arrives on time, they’ll be here in a few minutes. (What if / Assuming that / On condition that) 5. If he doesn't agree to my request, what will I do then? (Imagine / What if / Provided that) 6. You can go out tonight if you get back by midnight. (as long as / assuming that / supposing that) 7. If the helicopter hadn’t been there to save her, what would have happened then? (If only / Imagine / Unless) 8. If you'd offered to pay me a thousand pounds, I wouldn't have done it. (If only / Provided that / Even if) 9. If Rosie gets this new promotion, we'll have enough money for a holiday abroad this year. (Even if / Provided that / Supposing that) 15. Complete the text by putting the verbs in brackets into the correct tense. Einstein is reported to have said, "if I 1) ...had known... (know) the destruction I would cause, I 2) ……. (become) a watch-maker." If we 3) ………. (continue) to use nuclear energy as a means of defence, we 4) ……. (make) our planet uninhabitable. If the public 5……. (be) more aware of the dangers, they 6) ……demand) the right to live in a safer society. If the Cold War had developed into World War III, the human race 7) ……… (be/wiped out) forever. Unless we 8) ………. (discover) a way to prevent nuclear war, by the 21st century we 9) ………..(face) major disaster. Some scientists claim that if we 10) ……….. (tap into) the natural energy in the universe, we 11) …………. (provide) ourselves with a never-ending, pollution-free source of power. Only if we 12) ………. (put) more money into research and less into defence 13) ……… (we/be able to) discover other forms of energy. As long as we 14).……… (continue) to abuse knowledge and power, the earth 15)………(remain) an insecure planet to inhabit. 16. Fill in the gaps with the correct form of the verb in brackets. A I wish I 1) …… (have) more money. Life 2) ……... (be) much easier if I 3) ……(have) some savings in the bank. If only I 4) ……. (save) my money when I was young. All the time, though, I lived only for the moment. I wish I 5)…….(know) then what I know now. If I 6) ……… (be) careful, then I 7) ………. (make) my life much easier. If only I 8) ………. (turn) back the clock. B Jennifer wishes she 1) …..(be) a vet. "If I 2) ……… (study) biology at school, maybe things 3) …………..(turn out) differently," she says. However if she 4) …………… (be) honest with herself she 5) ………. (admit) that being a vet was never a possibility. Lots of people wish they 6) ……. (do) something for which they are not qualified. If Jennifer 7) ……… (be) more realistic, she 8) …… (tell) you that in reality she's allergic to animals. 17. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense. Example: Suppose they …had not turned up… (not/turn up) to meet you, what would you have done? 1. If only I … (not/eat) so much last night.
18. Read the following situations, then make sentences using would rather or had better. Example: You want to play tennis not squash. I would rather play tennis than play squash.
19. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form. Example: I'd rather ...go... (go) fishing this afternoon.
APPENDIX Some nouns form the plural differently. Remember.
The nouns roof, chief, handkerchief, belief, safe do not change –f for –ve in the plural. The nouns ending in –o have a tricky spelling in the plural:
Possessive case The possessive case can be used to talk about ownership or the relationship between people. It is formed in two ways:
Gradable and non-gradable adjectives Most adjectives have a meaning which can be made stronger or weaker; these are called ‘gradable adjectives’. Other adjectives have a meaning which is extreme or absolute and cannot easily be made stronger or weaker. These are called ‘non-gradable adjectives’. We can make comparative and superlative forms from all gradable adjectives:
We can make gradable adjectives stronger with very, but not with the adverb absolutely: That new jacket looks very expensive. There are several other modifiers which we use to strengthen the meaning of these adjectives: so, rather, really, extremely, terribly, most (formal), pretty (informal): Last night's match was terribly exciting. I felt pretty upset after the accident. (informal) The chapter on the early sonnets was most instructive. (formal) We often use less common adverbs to modify certain gradable adjectives. Although very is commonly used to strengthen any adjective, your English will sound more fluent and natural if you learn to use other combinations of adverb and adjective: I was bitterly disappointed at my exam results. My brother is painfully shy. The students in this school are highly intelligent. Gradable adjectives can usually be made weaker by the words fairly, slightly, a (little) bit (informal) and somewhat (formal): I've been feeling slightly dizzy all morning. My friend was a bit drunk. (informal) The police reported that the man was somewhat inebriated. (formal) We can use not very and not at all to weaken gradable adjectives after the verb be: The end of term test wasn't very long and it wasn't at all difficult. A non-gradable adjective is one that cannot be qualified by words like very, too and enough (weekly, unconscious, dead, legal, medical, empty, full, wonderful, perfect, terrible, astonished, delicious, amazing, hilarious). Non-gradable adjectives are not usually used in comparatives and superlatives. A common way to intensify the meaning of non-gradable adjectives is with the adverb absolutely. We use this device to add emphasis in spoken and informal English; it is not common in writing: I couldn't swim in the sea; the water was absolutely freezing. The show was absolutely fabulous. When we use quitewith non-gradable adjectives, it has a similar meaning to 'completely' emphasizing the strength of the adjective: The tenor's performance was quite amazing. You're quite correct. Although we use absolutely with many non-gradable adjectives, there are some adjectives which are never intensified with absolutely and some where we prefer to use other intensifying adverbs such as completely, totally and utterly. There are no grammar rules which explain these combinations. I'm afraid your answer is completely wrong. Since the accident Henry has been totally deaf in one ear. Susan was utterly appalled by her husband's dishonesty. We can also use a most before non-gradable adjectives used before a noun: Hilary has a most amazing hairstyle. We do not usually make non-gradable adjectives weaker by using the modifiers fairly, almost, slightly, a (little) bit, somewhat or not very. But we do use almost, nearly, practically or virtually to indicate a point close to the absolute meaning of non-gradable adjectives: He never turns the heating on - it's practically freezing in there. The battery in my calculator is almost dead. After six months with the disease he was nearly deaf and virtually blind. In spoken English many ‘non-gradable’ adjectives can be used gradably when we are comparing similar things and can then be used in comparisons: I've never been more exhausted than I was after the New York marathon. That was the most delicious meal you've ever cooked! With comparatives of this type we often use still more or even more: Their house is even more enormous than Richard's! Note that we can often only use certain adverbs with certain adjectives. adverb + adjective bitterly cold, disappointed, divided, hostile, humiliated, hurt opposed, resented, resentful, upset completely acclimatised, alone, different, drained, empty/full, extinguished, immune (from/to sth), incapable (of sth), incomprehensible, lost, negative, new, open (with sb) (= honest), overlooked, revised, right/wrong, untenable deeply ashamed, attached (to sb/sth) (= strong feeling for), conscious, conservative, depressed, disappointed, disturbed, divided, embedded, embittered, hurt, indebted (to sb), ingrained, in love with, involved, involved (in sth), lamented, meaningful, moving, religious, rutted entirely absent, beneficial, clear, different, false, fitting, free, global, impersonal, loyal, new, obvious, serious, unconvincing, unexpected heavily armed, booked, built, censored, criticised, embroiled (with sb/sth), flavoured, guarded, involved (in sth), muscled, polluted, populated, protected, publicised, regulated, represented, scented, soiled, taxed hideously bad, burnt, deformed, disfigured, disfiguring, effective, embarrassing, expensive, injured, lurid, mangled, scarred, swollen, ugly, unhygienic highly commended, contagious, controversial, critical, dependent, developed, educated, enjoyable, flexible, intelligent, mobile, paid, personal, polished, political, popular, publicised, qualified, recommended, regarded, relevant, resistant, respected, significant, skilled, specialised, technical, toxic, trained, unlikely, valued, volatile painfully acute, aware, evocative, ;earned, loud, obvious, self-conscious, sensitive, shy, slow, small, sparse, thin perfectly arranged, balanced, capable, fitting (= appropriate), formed, genuine, good, healthy, normal, placed, proper, rational, reasonable, (al1) right, safe, still, straightforward, understandable, valid seriously damaged, exposed, hit (= damaged), ill, impaired, rich, threatened, undermined, wealthy totally abandoned, abused, alien, anaemic, decent, destroyed, different embarrassed, harmless, homogeneous, honest, impervious (to sth), inadequate, incompetent, integrated, irresistible, logical, new, normal, overpowering, stiff, surprising, unacceptable, unbelievable, undefined, unjustified, wasted utterly abandoned, alone, appalled, careless, dejected, destroyed, devoted (to sb), different, disastrous, fearless, futile, impossible, irresistible, lacking, ruthless, tragic, unacceptable, unattainable, unquestioning, useless, wrecked Order of Adjectives When there are two or more adjectives, they normally go in the following order: 1. Opinion adjectives (beautiful, nice, dirty etc) 2. Fact adjectives: size – quality/character – age – shape – colour – participles - origin – material – type – purpose (used for/be about) It's a beautiful big old round brown Italian oak dining table. Afraid, alike, alive, alone, ashamed, asleep, content, ill, glad etc are never followed by a noun. The baby is asleep. We always put the category which is most permanent or important (usually “type” or “purpose”) next to the noun: The builders took out the antiquated gas heating system. We don’t usually use more than three or four adjectives before a noun. If we want to give more information we can use additional clauses: It’s a charming small nineteenth-century French brass carriage clock. – It’s a charming small French carriage clock, made of brass and dating from the nineteenth century. Nouns of material, purpose or substance can be used as adjectives. a cotton skirt, a winter dress, a shopping bag. However, certain adjectives derived from such nouns are used metaphorically. silky hair (hair like silk) - a silk scarf (made of silk), a stony expression (cold expression) - a stone cottage (made of stone), golden hair (hair like gold) - a gold pen (made of gold), feathery leaves (leaves which look like feathers) - a feather duster (made of feathers), metallic colour (colour that looks like metal) - a metal chair (made of metal), leathery skin (skin looking/feeling like leather) - a leather wallet ( made of leather), a leaden feeling (an unpleasant feeling) - lead pipes (made of lead), a steely look (a strong, determined look) - steel framework (made of steel) Types of Comparisons * as ... (positive degree) ... as He is as handsome as everyone says he is! not so/as ... (positive degree) ... as She isn't as tall as her sister. such a(n)/so ...as Helen is not so friendly as she looks. *twice/three times etc/half as ... (positive degree) ... as She puts four times as much sugar in her tea as me. If he was half as lucky as you, he'd be extremely rich. *the same as He has the same views as his father. *look, sound, smell, taste + like That dress looks like an old sack. *less ... (positive degree) ... than the least ... (positive degree) ... of/in This chocolate has less fat than that one but the Swiss chocolate has the least fat of all. * the + comparative..., the + comparative The easier the exam, the higher your marks will be. The more people who use buses, the better it is for the environment. * comparative + and + comparative It's getting colder and colder every day. *prefer + -ing form/noun + to + -ing form/noun (general preference) I prefer eating healthily to eating junk food. Men usually prefer beer to milk. *would prefer + to-inf + rather than + inf without to (specific preference) I would prefer to go swimming rather than watch television all day. *would rather/sooner + inf without to + than + inf without to I’d rather walk than drive. *clause + whereas/while + clause (comparison by contrast) This book says the battle was in 1066, whereas that book says it was in 1166. Like – As * Like is used: a) for similarities. She works like a slave. (she isn't a slave) b) after feel, look, smell, taste, sound + noun. It feels like velvet. It looks like Turner is going to win the race. c) with nouns, pronouns or the -ing form to express similarity. It's like walking on a tightrope. * As is used: a) to say what somebody or something really is (jobs/roles). She works as a clerk. (she's a clerk), b) after accept, be known, class, describe, refer to, regard, use. He's known as an expert on antiques. c) in the expressions: as usual, as ... as, as much, the same as. Certain items such as scissors, knives etc should be kept out of reach of children. d) in clauses of manner to mean "in the way that". Do it as I showed you. Adverbs Adverbs normally describe verbs, adjectives, other adverbs or whole sentences. She dances well. (How does she dance? Well.) He swims very fast. They tell us how (adverbs of manner – slowly, carefully), where (adverbs of place - next door, there); when (adverbs of time - tomorrow), how often (adverbs of frequency – usually, always), or how much /to what extent (adverbs of degree – absolutely, completely) something happens. There are also relative adverbs (when, where, why) and sentence adverbs (possibly, maybe). Order of Adverbs *Adverbs usually go after verbs but before adjectives, other adverbs and participles. He speaks softly. She is amazingly beautiful. He drove very fast. Computers are extensively used nowadays. Adverbs can be used in front, mid or end position in a sentence. Front Mid End All afternoon they played quietly in the sitting room. *Adverbs of manner can be used in any position; they go before the main verb, after the auxiliary verb or at the end of the sentence; in front position they give emphasis. She opened the letter carefully. She easily passed the exam. We are eagerly waiting for his letter. He acted foolishly Carefully, she opened the letter. (emphasis) *Adverbs of place and time usually go at the end of the sentence. There is a cafe nearby. I'll meet you tomorrow. Some one-syllable adverbs of time such as soon, now and then, go before the main verb, but after the auxiliary verb or the verb to be. She then told him what had happened. He will soon inform us about his decision. *Adverbs of manner, place and time, when used in the same sentence, are usually placed as follows: subject + verb manner place time He was working quietly in the shed all day. The baby slept quietly in his cot all night long. Note that when there is a verb of movement (go, come, leave ), the order is place - manner - time. subject + verb place manner time She went there by bus yesterday. He came to work by bus this morning. Adverbs of time usually go in end position. subject + verb place manner time She goes to the gym on foot every day. They also go in front position to emphasize the time. time subject+ verb place manner Everyday she goes to the gym on foot. *We can put an adverb at the beginning of a sentence if we want to emphasize it. Slowly, he closed the door behind him. (manner) In the living room, there is an antique grandfather clock. (place) Yesterday, I met the President. (time) *Adverbs of frequency (always, usually, sometimes, ever, occasionally, seldom etc) go after the auxiliary verbs and the verb to be, but before the main verb. She is always complaining. She always comes on time. He is always ready to help. Sam often complains about his salary. In short answers, however, adverbs of frequency go before the auxiliary. "Is he always so bad tempered?" "Yes, he always is." * Adverbs of degree (absolutely, completely, totally, extremely, very, rather, almost, hardly, quite etc) go before the words they modify. (They go before an adjective, an adverb or a main verb, but after an auxiliary verb). I've almost finished. This is totally unacceptable. They arrived rather early. We absolutely love her sense of humour. I don't quite understand what you mean. This, these, that and those are used as demonstrative adjectives when they are followed by a noun and as pronouns when they are not followed by a noun. This vase is made of crystal. (demonstrative adjective) That is made of glass. (pronoun) this/these are used: * for people or things which are near us. This is my favourite painting. * for present or future situations. My cousin is staying with me this week. * to refer to an idea we are about to mention. Listen to this. It's really funny. * to introduce oneself on the phone or to introduce people. 'Hello? This is Helen.' 'Mum, this is Kate.' * when the speaker is in or near the place he/she is referring to. This room hasn't got enough light. that/those are used: *for people or things which are not near us. That man over there is waving at you. * for past situations That was a great party. We enjoyed ourselves. * to refer back to something mentioned before. 'She lost her job.' 'That's awful.' * when speaking on the phone to ask who the other person is. 'Who's that speaking?' *All refers to more than two people or things. It has a positive meaning and takes a verb in the plural. It is the opposite of none. All students failed. All of them failed. They all failed. All five of them failed. All + that-clause (= the only thing) takes a singular verb. All that he said was not to worry. *Both refers to two people or things. It has a positive meaning and takes a verb in the plural. (Both ... and ... + plural verb). It is the opposite of neither/not either. Pam and Ann are singers. Both Pam and Ann are singers. They are both singers. Both of them are singers. Both girls are singers. *Whole (= complete) is used with countable nouns. We always use a, the, this, my etc + whole + countable. the whole day = all day *Either (= any one of two) / Neither (= not one and not the other) refer to two people or things and are used before singular countable nouns. Neither girl enjoys horror films. Neither of/Either of take a verb either in the singular or plural. Neither of them is/are French. *None refers to more than two people or things. It has a negative meaning and isn't followed by a noun. "Are there any mistakes?" "No, none. " None of is used before nouns or object pronouns followed by a verb either in the singular or plural. It is the opposite of all. None of the three girls/them know(s) how to do it. Note: no + noun. There's no room for you. * Every is used with singular countable nouns. It refers to a group of people or things and means "all", "everyone", "everything" etc. He goes to the gym every day. * Each is used with singular countable nouns. It means "one by one", considered individually. Each member of the team was given a medal. Note that every one and each one have ‘of’- constructions. Every one of/Each one of the players is to be given a bonus. * One/Ones are used to avoid repetition of a countable noun. "Which dress do you like?" "This one. " Note: Neither ... nor ... / Either ... or ... / Not only ... but also... + singular or plural verb depending on the subject which follows nor, or, but also. Neither Bill nor John is willing to help. Not only Sue but also her family are going to the wedding. * Reflexive pronouns are used after certain verbs (behave, burn, cut, enjoy, hurt, kill, look at etc) when the subject and the object of the verb are the same. Did you cut yourself? They can also be used after be, feel, look, seem to describe emotions or states. She hasn't been herself recently. Reflexive pronouns can be used after prepositions but not after prepositions of place. She is very pleased with herself. but: She looked behind her. Certain verbs (wash, shave, dress, undress, meet, rest, relax, stand up, get up, sit down, wake up etc) do not normally take a reflexive pronoun. She woke up and dressed. Wash or dress can be used with a reflexive pronoun to talk about young children or animals. The little girl is washing herself. * Emphatic pronouns have the same form as reflexive pronouns but a different meaning. They give emphasis to the noun, or the fact that a certain person performs an action. She herself organized the feast. They can also mean "without help". He painted the house himself. Note these idioms: Enjoy yourselves! (= Have a good time!) Behave yourself! (= Be good!) He likes being by himself. (= He likes being alone.) He lives by himself. (= He lives on his own.) By myself, by yourself, by himself etc (= on one’s own) Help yourself to tea. (= You're welcome to take some tea if you want some.) Do it yourself. (= Do it without being helped.) Make yourself at home! (= Feel comfortable.) Make yourself heard. (= Speak loudly enough to be heard by others.) Make yourself understood. (= Make your meaning clear.) "Other" structures * the other(s) = the rest. These books are Tom's; the others are mine. * others = several more apart from those already mentioned. People have different opinions when it comes to vegetarianism; some believe it's unhealthy and unnatural not to eat meat while others believe it is much better for our health. other/others When other is used with a noun, it has no plural form. Where are the other files? But: I've got some files here. Where are the others? Note: Others can also be used to mean (the) other people. Some people enjoy playing golf, others hate it. * each other = one another. Good friends always help each other out. We don't visit each other very often. * every other = alternate, every second I go jogging every other day. We go to the supermarket every other Friday * the other day = a few days ago. I bumped into George the other day; he looked well. Jack called me the other day; he said he was coming home the following week * the other one(s) = not this/these but something else. No, not that shirt. I want the other one; the black one please. These shoes are too small - can I try the other ones, please? * another = one more apart from those already mentioned, additional, an extra one. It is used with singular countable nouns. Can you give me another cup of coffee? Would you like another cup of tea? These apples are delicious. Can I have another (one)? Another can also be used with expressions of distance, money and time. It’ll cost another £5 to get it. * another + few/two, three etc. + noun We're going to stay for another few days/another four days. * other/another = different, besides this/these Have you got any other blouses in black? I don't like this tie. Can you show me another one? *Ever can be added to certain question words to mean "any". These words are: whoever (anyone who), whatever (anything that), whichever (any of), whenever (any time that), wherever (any place that), however (in any way that). You can come whenever you like. (= any time that you like) * The adverb else means 'other, different', or 'more'. It is used after somebody, anybody, nothing, everywhere, etc. and who, what, why, when, where and how. It is followed by a singular verb. a) Can I get you anything else? b) Kim hasn't arrived yet but everybody else is here. c) 'I've been to Lisbon twice this year.' 'Really? Where else have you been?' d) 'I bought a lovely rug from the market.' 'What else did you buy?' Anything (else) and nothing (else) can be used with but. I haven't got anything (else) to offer but my advice. * The possessive of else is else's. I have taken somebody else's book by mistake. * Or else means 'otherwise', 'if not'. Hurry up or else we'll miss our flight. * Elsewhere is formal and means 'somewhere else'. If you are not satisfied with the service in this restaurant, you can go elsewhere. * Every and each are used with singular countable nouns. We normally use each when we talk about two people or things. We use every when we talk about three or more people or things. He was holding an ice cream in each hand. Every part of my body hurt after the fall. * Every one and each (one) can be followed by of. It was the twins' birthday yesterday. I gave a present to each (one) of them. I've seen all of Mel Gibson's films and I liked every one of them. * We use every when we are thinking of people or things together, in a group to mean 'all', 'everybody/everything'. Every employee is entitled to twenty days off. (all employees) We use each when we are thinking of people or things separately, one at a time. Each employee in turn will tell the manager when he wishes to take his holiday. * We use every to show how often something happens. There is a train every twenty minutes. I have to attend a meeting every two months * We use every but not each with words and expressions such as almost, nearly, practically and without exception. She has invited every person she knows, without exception. Stative and Dynamic Verbs Dynamic verbs are verbs which describe actions/ activities: go, ask, walk, explain, etc. Stative verbs (or state verbs) are verbs which do not describe actions, they describe feelings, thoughts, wishes, the senses and states of being: believe, belong, smell, want, etc.
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