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Учебное пособие для слушателей программы дополнительного (к высшему) образования Переводчик в сфере профессиональной коммуникации


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Causative get and have
Causative get and have mean ‘ask, cause or persuade somebody to do something’ in the active form, and ‘arrange for somebody else to do something’ in the passive.
The active pattern is get + sb + to-infinitive

I’ll get my assistant to bring you the other pair of shoes.

She got her husband to cut the grass. (She persuaded her husband to cut me grass.)

or

have + sb + bare infinitive:

Shall I have my secretary send you the details?
The passive pattern is get/have + object + past participle:

I’m getting/having my house decorated at the moment.

You ought to get/have your blood pressure checked.
Get is more common in British English - have is now more formal except in some situations described below.

  • Sometimes causative get/have suggests the need to deal with a difficulty: I’m afraid you'll have to get/have the whole house rewired.

  • We use have in the passive when something unpleasant happens. Get is much less common than have in these situations:

I had my wallet stolen in the crowd. He had his car broken into last night.

  • Sometimes when we use have, meaning depends on context:

We’vehad the bricks removed. (= either we arranged for somebody to take them, or somebody stole them)

  • We use get, not have, when somebody else has to work on our behalf:

One of these days I’m going to get myself elected onto the committee.
We often use get + past participle meaning ‘become’:

She got dressed and went downstairs.

My dog got run over by a removal van.
*Make/have + object + bare infinitive are used to express that someone causes someone else to do something, but their meaning is slightly different.

He made Liz send a fax. (He insisted that Liz should send a fax)

He had Liz send a fax. (He asked Liz to send a fax.)
The verbs believe, expect, feel, hope, know, report, say, think etc

are used in the following passive patterns in personal and impersonal constructions.
* subject (person) + passive verb + to -inf (personal construction)

Doctors expect he will recover soon -

He is expected to recover soon.
* it + passive verb + that-clause (impersonal construction)

It is expected that he will recover soon.
Clauses
Sentences can consist of main and subordinate clauses.

Subordinate clauses can be:

* noun clauses: I know that he'll be a little late.

* relative clauses: Show me the pictures which you took.

* adverbial clauses (clauses of time, place, manner, reason, concession, purpose, result, comparison, condition)

He left early so as not to miss the bus.
Relative Clauses

Relative clauses are introduced by:

a) relative pronouns, i.e. who, whom, whose, which or that
The man who/that stole the money.

That's the girl whose brother is a singer.

I read a book (which/that) was written by Samuel Johnson.

The cat (which/that) you saw lying on the sofa is my favourite one.

That's the coat the sleeves of which/whose sleeves are made of velvet.
b) relative adverbs i.e. when, where or why.

Time: when (= in/on/at which) 1982 was the year (when) I moved to Wales.

Place: where (= in/at/on/to which) That's the hotel where we spent our honeymoon.

Reason: why (= for which) That's the reason (why) they were celebrating.
We do not normally use prepositions before relative pronouns.

The house in which she lives is in the suburbs. (formal - not usual)

The house which she lives in is in the suburbs. (usual)

The house she lives in is in the suburbs. (more usual)

Clauses of Manner
* Clauses of manner are introduced by: as if/as though (after act, appear, be, behave, feel, look, seem, smell, sound, taste),

as, how, (in) the way, (in) the way that, the way in which, (in) the same way, (in) the same way as. Try to do it as I showed you.
* In clauses of manner introduced with as if/as though we can use were instead of was in all persons in formal English.

She acts as if she were/was in charge of the project.
Note how the tense forms are used after as if/as though:

* as if/as though + any tense form (showing probability/similarity - how sb/sth seems)

She feels as if she has got a temperature. (She may have a temperature.)

She sounded as if she had a cold. (She may have had a cold.)

* as if/as though + Past Simple/Past Continuous (unreal in the present)

She acts as if she knew everything. (but she doesn't)

* as if/as though + Past Perfect (unreal in the past)

She felt as if they had misjudged her. (but they hadn't)

Clauses of Time
*Clauses of time are introduced by: after, as, as long as, as soon as, before, by the time (= before, not later than), every time, immediately, just as, once, the moment (that), until/till (= up to the time when), when, while etc.

The castaway had to wait five years until he was rescued.
*Clauses of time follow the rule of the sequence of tenses; that is, when the verb of the main clause is in a present or future form, the verb of the time clause is in the present form, and when the verb of the main clause is in a past form, the verb of the time clause is in a past form too. Note that will/ would are never used in a clause of time.

I'll cook dinner as soon as I've finished washing up.

She left her job as soon as she got married.
* When the time clause precedes the main clause, a comma is used. When the time clause follows, no comma is used.

By the time he arrived, she had left. But: She had left by the time he arrived.
Clauses of Place

Clauses of place are introduced by: where, wherever, everywhere, anywhere etc.

She’ll follow him wherever he goes.

Will/Would are never used in clauses of place.

Everywhere Joan goes she gets into trouble.
Clauses of Reason

* Clauses of reason are introduced by: as, because, for, on the grounds that, the reason for, the reason (why) etc.

As they had no money to buy a ticket, they hitchhiked.
* Because usually answers a why-question.

"Why didn't you invite him?" "Because I don't like him."

For (= because) always comes after a comma in written speech or a pause in oral speech.

I didn't invite him, for I don't like him. (very formal)

* Because of/Due to + noun/-ing form.

Because of the train strike, no one could get to work last Tuesday.

Because of/Due to + the fact that ...

Due to the tact that he had no money, he was unable to buy any Christmas presents.
Clauses of Result

Clauses of result are introduced by: that (after such/so ...), (and) as a result, (and) as a conse­quence, consequently, so etc.

It was such bad weather that we stayed in.

* such a(n) + (adjective) + singular countable noun.

He is such a rude person that nobody likes him.

* such + (adjective) + uncountable/plural noun.

It was such lovely scenery that we took lots of photos.

* such + a lot of + noun.

There were such a lot of people on the train that we couldn't get on.

* so + adjective/adverb.

She drives so carelessly that she's bound to have an accident.

* so + few/little/many/much + noun.

He had so much luggage that he couldn't carry it.

* so + adjective + a(n) + noun.

It's so hot a day that everyone is going to the beach. (not usual)

* as a result/therefore/consequently/so + clause.

The cinema was crowded so we left.
Expressing Purpose - Clauses of Purpose

Purpose is expressed with:

* to/in order to/so as to + inf

She is studying to be a doctor.

* so that + can/will(present/future reference)

We'll have an early night so that we won't be tired tomorrow.

* so that + could/would(past reference)

He employed a detective so that he could find the murderer.

* with a view to/with the aim of + -ing form

They started saving up with a view to buying a car.

*for + noun/-ing form

She bought some cream for polishing silver.

* in case + Present(present/future reference)

I'll phone him in case he's forgotten the appointment.

* in case + Past(past reference)

He took a torch in case there was no light in the attic.
Negative Purpose is normally expressed with:

* so as not/in order not + to -inf

They spoke in whispers so as not to wake the children.

* so that + can't/won't (present/future reference)

I'll invite her so that she won't feel lonely.

* so that + couldn't/wouldn't (past reference)

They hid the letter so that he wouldn't find out the truth.

* for fear/lest + might/should

They put on their life jackets for fear they might drown.

* for fear of sth/doing sth

He left his money in the hotel safe for fear of losing it.

* prevent + noun/pronoun + (from) + -ing form

They put up notices to prevent people (from) walking on the grass.

* avoid + -ing form

He took a map to avoid getting lost.
Clauses of purpose follow the rule of the sequence of tenses.

She trains every day so that she can enter the competition.

She trained every day so that she could enter the competition.
Clauses of Contrast

Clauses of contrast (or concession) are used to express a contrast.

They are introduced with the following words/phrases:
but - although/even though/though - in spite of/despite - however - while/whereas - yet - nevertheless - on the other hand
* although/even though/though + clause

Although it snowed heavily, he came to the meeting.

Even though is more emphatic than although.

Though is informal and is often used in everyday speech.

It can also be put at the end of a sentence.

Although/Even though/Though it was summer, it was chilly.

It was chilly although/even though/though it was summer.

It was summer. It was chilly, though.

It snowed heavily. He came to the meeting, though.



* in spite of/despite + noun/-ing form

In spite of/Despite his qualifications, he couldn't get a job.

He couldn't get a job in spite of/despite (his) being qualified.

Despite his illness/being ill, he went to the party.
*In spite of/despite the fact that + clause

In spite of/Despite the fact that he was qualified, he couldn't get a job.

In spite of the fact that he was ill, he went to the party
* nevertheless/however + clause

A comma is always used after however/nevertheless.

The man fell off the ladder. However/Nevertheless, he wasn't hurt.

He has lots of experience; however, he didn't get the job.
*while/whereas/but/on the other hand/yet + clause.

It was cold, but she wasn't wearing a coat.

He worked hard, yet he failed to meet the deadline.

She is tall, while/whereas her brother is rather short.

Cars aren’t environmentally friendly.

On the other hand, bicycles are. /Bicycles, on the other hand, are.

yet (formal) /still

The fire was widespread, yet no property was damaged.

My car is old. Still, it is in very good condition.
*However/No matter how + adj/adv + subject (+ may) + verb.

However fast he runs, he can't beat Tom.
*adj/adv + though + subject + verb/(may + bare inf).

Clever though he is, his laziness caused him to fail the exam.

Much though I may want it, I can't afford a holiday this year.
*adj/adv + as + subject + verb. Skinny as he is, he eats a lot.
A comma is used when the clause of concession either precedes or follows the main clause.

Even though he was tired, he went to the party.

He went to the party, even though he was tired.
Here are some of the most common conjunctions used to introduce adverbial clauses:

Time

when, after, before, as, as soon as, by the time (that), once, since, until/till, wherever, while

Place

where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere

Manner

as, as if, as though

Comparison

than, as ... as

Reason

because, as, since

Purpose

so that, in order that, in case

Result

so ... that, such a ... that

Condition

if, unless, provided/providing (that), so/as long as

Contrast

although/though/even though, while, whereas, however, (+ much/good/badly), whatever, whenever, wherever


Note: We generally use the present simple to refer to the future in adverbial clauses of time and condition:

When/If I come to London, I'll come and see you.

and we use the present perfect in place of the future perfect:

When I've finished my dinner, I'll come and help you.

Inversion
There are at least eighteen types of inversion:

1. neg intro

2. intro adverbial (in, down, prepositional phrase)

3. intro -ed

4. comparative

5. intro comparative

6. as

7. so... that...

8. had, should, were

9. there is

10. here is

11. intro -ing

12. emphasis

13. the bigger, the better

14. questions

15. "story speech"

16. nor

17. so do I/neither do I

18. intro adjective


Type

Examples

Notes

neg intro


Never do I sleep.

Only at night can I study.

In no way could I help you with your Japanese grammar question.

I believe that only rarely will I need your help.

Not until I got home did I realize that my shoes were untied.


Question form is obligatory.
Used with all verbs.
We need to learn the various types of words and phrases that require this type of inversion.
Sometimes the inversion occurs right after the neg intro form and sometimes it occurs in the next subject and verb.

intro adverbial


Into the room ran the lady.

First comes love, then comes marriage.

After A comes B, then comes C, next comes D.

Down came the rain and washed the spider out.


Inversion is optional.
Used with be-verbs, linking verbs, and verbs of direction.

Sometimes we have an adverb, like first and down and sometimes we have an adverb phrase like into the room or after A. These adverbs and adverb phrases usually show location or direction.
This type of inversion usually only occurs with be-verbs, linking verbs and verbs that show direction or movement, like come, go, run, etc.

intro –ed


Found in San Francisco is Lombard Street, the so-called crookedest street in the world.

Lost among the old tables and chairs was the priceless Victorian desk.

Located between San Francisco and Marin County is the Golden Gate Bridge.

Inversion is obligatory.
Used with be-verbs.
This type of inversion usually occurs with be-verbs, but sometimes with linking verbs.
Notice that the phrase is the complement of the be-verb.


comparatives


Cheetahs run faster than do antelopes.

You speak Chinese better than do I.

Jessica is more interested in Computer Science than is Benjamin

Inversion is optional.
Used with all verbs.
We normally only have inversion here if we are comparing subjects of the verb, not objects. For example, in the following two sentences, we are comparing objects, carrots and potatoes, not the subject I.:
I like carrots more than I do potatoes.

I like carrots more than do I like potatoes.
Now, in this sentence, we are comparing subjects, I and my friend Carl:
I like carrots more than does my friend Carl.

intro comparative


Bigger than an apatosaur is the blue whale.

More important than your personal statement is your GPA.

No less impressive than the invention of the laser was the development of the wheel.

Inversion is obligatory.
Used with be-verbs.
We can only use this form of inversion when the verb is a be-verb since in every case, the comparative is the complement of the be-verb.
Remember that less than is also a comparative.

as


Megumi is from Japan, as is Sato.

Ann wants to leave early today, as does Tim.

If thrown into the water, camels can swim, as can cats.

Inversion is obligatory.
Used with all verbs.
We can only use inversion if we are using as for comparisons.

so… that…


So happy was I that I bought flowers for everybody in class.

So quickly did she leave that we did not even realize she was gone.

So rarely does a comet appear visible to the naked eye that when one does, it is considered a major event.

Question form is obligatory.
Used with all verbs.



8. had, should, were for if-clauses

Had I remembered Tom's birthday, she wouldn’t be mad at me now.

Note that the word if does NOT appear in the clause when inversion is used:

Had I remembered = If I had remembered

Should you need a hand, I will be more than happy to help you.

Should you need a hand = If you should need a hand

Were I you, I think I would study more for your exam tomorrow.

Were I you = If I were you

Inversion is obligatory.
Used with all verbs.
This type of inversion is kind of special. We can only use this type of inversion when we are using an if-clause. In other words, if is omitted: even though the word if does not appear in the clause, we still have the meaning of an if-clause.

there is, there are, there exists, there comes, etc.


There is a good restaurant nearby.

There comes a time in every person’s life when she realizes that she is responsible for her own happiness, not other people.

Scientists hypothesize that there exists a certain type of particle that can travel faster than the speed of light.

Inversion is obligatory.
Usually used only with these verbs.
Most people remember there is and there are. BUT there are other verbs that we can use instead of is and are. The most common ones are exist, come, and go.


here is, here are, here comes, here come


Here is some good food for you to try.

Here are the books that I don’t need anymore.

Here comes the bus!

Inversion is obligatory.
Usually used only with these verbs.
We use this form mostly in spoken English.

intro -ing


Burning out of control was the forest located in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains.

Coming in last in the race was Joe "Elephant Legs" Blow.

Not helping the situation was little Susie, who was throwing newspaper on the spreading fire.


Inversion is obligatory.
Used only with be-verbs.
Notice the intro –ing phrase is the complement of the be-verb.



emphasis


Boy am I hungry.

Is it ever hot in here!

Do you know how to cook!


Inversion is optional.
Used with all verbs.
We use this form mostly in spoken English

the bigger, the better


The closer an object is to another object, the greater is the gravity between the two objects.

Question form is optional.
Used with all verbs.


questions


Is this the last example?

Do you enjoy reading these lists?

Are we finished yet?

Inversion is obligatory.
Used with all verbs.


"story speech"


“I think it’s time to go,” said Susan.

“It’s time for you, but not for me,” replied Gary.

“Maybe we should collect our thoughts for a moment,” commented Lany.


Inversion is optional.
Used with verbs that report speech.


nor


No one has volunteered for the job, nor do we expect anyone to volunteer in the future.

Hok-ming cannot speak Portuguese, nor can José speak Cantonese.

The zoo regulations will not permit you to touch the animals, nor would most people advise you to do so.

Inversion is obligatory.
Used with all verbs.
Remember that nor is considered a conjunction, but we use it between two sentences (not between any two elements like the other conjunctions).



"so do I"/ "neither do I."


“So do I.”

“So can Terry.”

“Neither do most people I know.”

Inversion is obligatory.
Used with all verbs.


intro adjective


Beautiful beyond belief was my baby daughter.

Happy about their acceptance into their dream schools were Lany and Tom.

Quick and painless will be your medical procedure.

Inversion is obligatory in most cases.
Used with be-verbs.
Inversion is sometimes not used in poetic language.



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