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1. There is a remarkably rich philosophic literature on the relationship of tolerance to social organization. There is a good deal of legal literature that also seeks to link law, or more properly, the rule of law and implicitly tolerance to the promotion and defense of political orders that are democratic and human rights sensitive. An implied but often unexplored assumption behind this perspective is that at a pre- or even metaconscious level there is a value that infuses all deliberate efforts to promote or defend the rule of law, viz., the precept of "Tolerance". In the literature on law, the relationship between tolerance and intolerance is often tied to the tension between law on the one hand, and justice on the other. This raises the question of tolerating civil disobedience, the morality of non-violence or violent resistance to unjust social orders or institutions. Існує чудово багата філософська література на зв'язку толерантності до соціальної організації. Існує багато юридичної (законної) літератури, це також намагається компонувати закон, або більш належним чином, правову норму та неявно толерантність до підтримки і захисту політичних замовлень, що є демократичними і чутливими правами людини. Що часто мається на увазі, але недосліджене припущення позаду цієї перспективи -- це у перед або навіть метасвідомий рівень існує величина (значення), що впорскує всі навмисні зусилля, аби підтримати або захистити правову норму, а саме припис "Толерантності". У літературі на законі зв'язок між толерантністю та нетолерантністю часто пов'язується до напруженості між законом, з одного боку, та справедливістю, на другому. Це піднімає питання визнання громадянської непокори, етика відмови від насильства або сильного опору несправедливим соціальним наказам або установам. 2. In 1875, geographers of the old Hungarian Kingdom erected a monument in a remote region of their country that carried the following inscription: "Precise instruments have confirmed this point where the latitude and longitude lines meet as the center of Europe" (1). Just over a century later, in 1977, the former Soviet authorities, who by then ruled the area, erected a second monument to mark the center of the Continent that stretches from the Arctic shores of Norway in the north to the beaches of Crete in the South, and from the coast of Ireland in the West to the Ural Mountains in the East. The precise center where the monuments are located is near the village of Dilove (formerly Trebusany) in the foothills of the north-central Carpathian Mountains that from time immemorial has been inhabited by an East Slavic people called Carpatho-Rusyns, or simply Rusyns (sometimes in English: Ruthenians). Thus, in geographic terms, the Rusyns are not a peripheral group, but rather one whose homeland -- Carpathian Rus' -- is literally located in the heart of Europe. У 1875 році, географи з старого Угорського Королівства встановили пам'ятник у віддаленій області їх країни, що ніс наступний напис: "Точні документи (інструменти) підтвердили цей пункт (точку), де широта і лінії довготи зустрічаються як центр Європи" (1). Лише більше ніж століття пізніше, у 1977 році, вищезазначені (попередні) Радянські власті, хто до того часу керували областю, встановило другий пам'ятник щоб зареєструвати центр Континенту, що простягається з Арктики, підтримує Норвегії на півночі до берегів острова Кріт у Півдні, та з узбережжя Ірландії в Заході до Уральских гір у Сході. Точний центр, де пам'ятники розташовані -- близько села Ділове (раніше Требушани) у підніжжя Карпатських гір, це з часу immemorial було заселено східнослов'янськими людьми, названі Карпато-Русини або просто Русини (іноді по- англійськи Ruthenians). Таким чином, у географічних термінах (умовах), Русини не є периферійна група, а скоріше те, чи батьківщина -- Карпатська Русь -- розташована буквально у серці Європи. 3. Some display adapters can change their configurations to match what an application tries to do. For example, if an application tries to use a video graphics adapter (VGA) configuration and your display adapter is currently configured as an extended graphics adapter (EGA), the adapter can switch from an EGA configuration to a VGA configuration. This type of display adapter makes use of non-maskable interrupts (NMIs) to change its configuration while you work. Деякі адаптери дисплея можуть зміняти (заміняти) їх конфігурації, щоб відповідати (узгоджувати) що прикладна програма намагається робити. Наприклад, якщо прикладна програма намагається застосувати відеоадаптер графіки (VGA) і ваш адаптер дисплея у даний час конфігурований як розширений адаптер графіки (EGA), адаптер може переключати з EGA конфігурації до VGA конфігурації. Цей тип адаптера дисплея використовує незамасковані переривання (NMI, щоб змінити (замінити) конфігурацію, в той час як Ви працюєте. 4. Microsoft Windows and MS-DOS work together as an integrated system. They were designed together and extensively tested together on a wide variety of computers and hardware configurations. Running Windows version 3.1 on an operating system other than MS-DOS could cause unexpected results or poor performance. Microsoft Windows та МС-ДОС працюють разом як інтегрована система. Вони були розроблені разом та екстенсивно перевірялись разом на широкому різномаїтті конфігурацій устаткування та комп'ютерів. Запускання Windows версія 3.1 на операційній системі, іншій ніж МС-ДОС могло б призвести непередбачені результати або недостатня (погана) робота (виконання). 5. Installation of the full product requires approximately 33 Mb of available disk space. (The installed product occupies about 28 Mb. However, about 5 Mb of temporary workspace is required to de-archive very large ZIP files.) The actual disk space occupied by this product and the amount of temporary work space required will vary depending on your disk's cluster size. If you are using a disk compression utility (e.g. Stacker), you'll need substantially more temporary workspace to avoid a disk full error (the amount you'll need will vary and some systems might require up to 45 Mb available disk space before running INSTALL). Встановлення повного виробу вимагає приблизно 33 МБ доступного дискового простору. (Встановлений виріб займає приблизно 28 МБ. Однак приблизно 5 МБ тимчасової робочої області вікна потрібно, щоб розраховувати дуже великі картотеки ZIP). Фактичний дисковий простір, зайнятий цим виробом та сумою (кількістю) тимчасово потрібного місця роботи буде змінюватися в залежності від розміру кластера вашого диска. Якщо ви використовуєте дискову корисність стиснення (наприклад, Накопичувач), ви будете потрібно в основному у великій кількості робочої області вікна, яке тимчасово слугує щоб уникнути дискової повної помилки (сума (кількість) що ви будете потрібно буде змінюватися, і деякі системи могли вимагати до 45 МБ доступний дисковий простір перед запусканням INSTALL). 6. Support for NATO expansion had grown during 1993, publicly driven by political enthusiasm both in the US Congress and in the Vysegrad countries. The bandwagon for expansion had picked up momentum in Summer, when Russian President Yeltsin had apparently agreed in Warsaw that Polish membership in NATO would not be against Russian interest. It was checked in fall by the spectre of chaos and civil war in Russia, as Yeltsin struggled to protect democracy in Russia, paradoxically by sending in the tanks against the Parliament. Even though there was never a real prospect of early NATO expansion, Partnership for Peace appeared to many as an attempt to evade the membership question and buy time. Підтримка для НАТІВСЬКОГО розширення зросла протягом 1993 року, публічно призвела (керувала) політичним ентузіазмом, і в США Конгрес і у Вишеградських країнах. Зростання для розширення підняв імпульс (рушійну силу) влітку, коли Російський президент Єльцин очевидно погодився у Варшаві, що польське членство в НАТО не буде супроти російського інтересу. Воно було стримано восени привидом хаосу та громадянської війни у Росії, оскільки він боровся, щоб захистити демократію в Росії, парадоксально надсилаючи танки проти парламенту. Навіть якщо ніколи не було реальної перспективи НАТІВСЬКОГО розширення, Партнерство заради Миру виявився до багатьох як спроба уникнути питання членства та виграти час. 7. If you are using a Phoenix-compatible PostScript printer or cartridge you may encounter problems when printing True Type fonts. For example, random characters may print in your documents. To correct this problem, select Bitmap (Type 3) for the Send To Printer As option in the Advanced Options dialog box for the PostScript printer driver. For more information about setting printing options, see the Microsoft Windows User's Guide. Якщо ви використовуєте phoenix-сумісний ПОСТСКРИПТУМ принтер, або касета, ви можете стикатися з проблемами під час друкування TrueType шрифти. Наприклад, довільні символи можуть друкувати у ваші документи. Щоб виправити цю проблему, виберіть Растр (Надрукуйте 3) для посилання до принтеру як опція у діалоговому вікні Заавансовані Опції для ПОСТСКРИПТУМ принтерного драйвера. Для більшої кількості інформації відносно встановлення виборів друку, див. Керівництво програміста Microsoft Windows. Завдання 2 Зробіть граматичну правку наведених комп'ютерних перекладів, орієнтуючись на відповідні оригінали: 1. Many of these inquiries might be regarded as simply the pursuit of the venerable philosophical task of clarifying a matter which is puzzling and which no one else is concerned to clarify, i.e. (if you will) as preliminary, quasi-scientific speculation concerning an essentially scientific question which is not at the moment capable of being treated as such. Philosophy has traditionally been the repository of such problems. But, from the history of semantics, it is apparent that other philosophical motives have been present from early times. For example, certain epistemological and metaphysical problems have been regarded as involving the question of what meaning is. The fact that the answers to some of these questions are not clear even now would itself be sufficient to explain why philosophers are still concerned with analyzing the concept of meaning. Багато з цих запитів могли бути розцінені як просто переслідування шановного філософського завдання пояснення питання, що є спантеличуючим і що який ніхто ще не стурбований з'ясувати, щоб пояснити, тобто (якщо ви будете) як попередня, квазінаукова гра на припущенні відносно по суті наукового питання, який у даний час не здатний на те, щоб обробляли також. Філософія традиційно була архів таких проблем. Але, з хронології семантики, очевидно, що інші філософські привіди були представлені з ранніх часів. Наприклад, деякі епістемологічні та метафізичні проблеми були розцінені як включення, питання якого значення. Факт, що відповіді деяких з цих питань не ясні навіть зараз, був би самостійно достатній, щоб пояснити, чому філософи все ще мають стосунок до аналізуючи поняття (концепцію) значення. 2. Behavior was assumed to be composed of simple units like reflexes and all larger behavior units were assumed to be integrations of a number of stimulus-response connections. Such connections are formed through the process of conditioning which involves the operation of associationist principles. Since Watson held that conditioning is the simplest form of learning and the elementary process to which all learning is reducible, everything that a person may learn in a lifetime must therefore be derived from the simple muscular and glandular responses which the child produces in infancy. Thus, in place of the classical doctrine of the association of ideas, behaviorism substitutes the association of motor responses. An idea, if the term is to have any meaning at all for the behaviorist, is a unit of behavior. What a child inherits are physical bodily structures and their modes of functioning. It has neither general intelligence nor any mental traits. Emotions are not considered as matters of feeling but as bodily reactions. Поведінка була прийнята, щоб складатися з простих одиниць подібно відбиткам, і все більші одиниці поведінки були прийняті, щоб бути інтеграцією низки зв'язків відповіді стимулу. Такі зв'язки сформовані через процес створення умов, що включає діє асоціаціоністських принципів. З тих часів Ватсон тримав, що створення умов є найпростіша форма вивчення та елементарний процес до який все вивчення є той, що може бути зведений, все, що особа може навчатися у часі життя потребує, отже, виводитися з простих мускульних та залозових реакцій, який дитина продукує у дитинстві. Таким чином, замість класичної доктрини асоціації ідей, біхевіоризм замінює асоціацією моторних реакцій. Ідея, якщо термін повинний мати якийсь значення взагалі для біхевіориста, є одиниця поведінки. Що дитина успадковує є фізичні тілесні структури та їх способи функціонування. Це не має ані спільний інтелект, ані якісь розумові риси. Емоції не розглядаються як питання почуттів, але як тілесні реакції. 3. The Colorado University Report on unidentified flying objects (UFOs) was published in January 1969. It was in three volumes and numbered nearly 1,500 pages. It was bleak and uncompromising. It stated flatly that there were no such things as flying saucers and never had been. Nearly all the UFO sightings, said the report, were related to ordinary objects such as aircraft, satellites, balloons, street lights, clouds or other natural phenomena. To pursue the matter further on anything but a limited scale would be a waste of money and time. The scientific committee headed by Professor Edward Condon said they had found no evidence whatever for the claim that any UFOs are spacecraft visiting earth from another civilization. They dismissed as ludicrous the notion that American authorities had captured extraterrestrial craft and were keeping quiet about it. Доповідь Університету штату Колорадо стосовно невизначених об'єктів польоту (UFOs) була видана у січні 1969 році. Це було у трьох виданнях та нумерувало 1500 сторінки. Це було суворо та безкомпромісний. Він стверджував категорично, що не було жодних таких речей, як блюдця польоту і ніколи не було. Майже всі UFO свідчення, сказала доповідь, були пов'язані з такими звичайними об'єктами, як літальні засоби, супутники, повітряні кулі, вуличні вогні, хмари або інші природні явища. Переслідувати питання далі на щось крім обмеженого масштабу було б марнування грошей та часу. Науковий комітет, очолюваний професором Едвардом Кондоном заявив, що вони не знайшли жодних доказів будь-яких для твердження, що будь UFOs є літальні апарати відвідуючи землю з іншої цивілізації. Вони відхилили як сміховинний поняття, що американські власті захопили позаземні судна і зберігали спокій відносно цього. 4. The number of members in the House of Representatives is fixed by the Congress at the time of each apportionment; since 1912, it has remained constant at 435. The Constitution provides that "representatives shall be apportioned among the States according to their respective numbers...". The Constitution also requires that each State have at least 1 representative. Members are elected for 2-year terms, all terms covering the same period, by popular vote. The Senate is composed of 100 members, two from each State, who are elected to serve for a term of six years. One-third of the Senate is elected every two years. Senators were originally chosen by the State legislature. The 17th Amendment to the Constitution, adopted in 1913, prescribed that Senators be elected by popular vote. Число членів у Палаті представників встановлений Конгресом під час кожного apportionment, починаючи з 1912 році, це залишилось постійним у 435. Конституція забезпечує, що "представники повинні бути apportioned серед штатів згідно їхнім відповідним номерам...". Конституція також вимагає, щоб кожний штат мав щонайменше 1 представник. Члени обрані для 2-річних термінів, всі терміни покриваючи той самий період, популярним голосом. Сенат складено із 100 членів, два з кожного штату, хто обрані, щоб служити для терміну шести років. З однією третиною Сенату обрано кожні два роки. Сенатори були початково обрані законодавчим органом штату. 17-а Редакція до Конституції, прийнятий у 1913 році, приписав, що Сенатори обрано популярним голосом (бюлетенем). 5. The commanding literary expression of the seventeenth century was the drama. It is equally evident that the commanding literary expression of the nineteenth century was the novel. The eighteenth century witnessed the decline of the one and the rise of the other and it is worth giving some consideration to the reason for this transition and to the impulses which effected it, if only to question whether it was primarily a consequence of changing taste and fashion or alterations in the entertainment industry. Like so much sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century literature, art and entertainment, Elizabethan-Jacobean drama was essentially ritualistic. It enacted communal beliefs about man's place in the scheme of things, beliefs rooted in custom and tradition and possessing a religious significance and importance enshrined in the ritualistic nature of the Church, an institution which still dominated every aspect of thought and behaviour. Керуючий літературний вираз сімнадцятого століття був драма. Однаково очевидно, що керуючий літературний вираз дев’ятнадцятого століття був роман. Вісімнадцяте століття засвідчило зниження одного та підвищення іншого, і це варто подання певного міркування (розгляду) до причини для цього переходу і до імпульсів, які продукували це, якщо тільки ставити під сумнів відносно, чи був це перш за все наслідок змінного смаку та режиму або змін у індустрії розваг. Подібно так багато шістнадцятого - та рано сімнадцятий-віковий література, мистецтво та розвага, Elizabethan-Jacobean драма була по суті ritualistic. Це приписало загальні переконання відносно місця людини у схемі речей (справ), переконання, утворені у звичаях та традиції і володіння релігійним значенням та важливістю освяченій у ritualistic характері Церкви, установа, яка все ще домінувала над кожним аспектом думки та поведінки. 6. Crucial for the improvement of the international organizations of conflict prevention is the cultivation of a strategic culture among the public opinion leaders. This implies increasing their awareness of international security interdependence and of the limits of national or even collective defence arrangements. It would also involve stimulating long-term thinking and a proactive approach to conflicts. What is also missing is determined international leadership for bringing together the necessary coalitions of countries to cope with the flood of turmoil around the world. Finally we need a better international regime for the coordination of conflict prevention efforts. This requires not only a significantly greater transfer of funds, but also a more effective cooperation between the existing international organizations. Визначальний для вдосконалення міжнародної організації попередження конфліктів є культивування стратегічної культури серед лідерів громадської думки. Це передбачає збільшення їхньої обізнаності взаємозалежності міжнародної безпеки та меж національних і навіть колективних влаштувань захисту. Це також включило б стимулювати довготермінові роздуми та підхід proactive до конфліктів. Що також відсутній, визначено міжнародне лідерство для забезпечення разом необхідні коаліції країн, щоб впоратися із повінню метушні в усьому світі. Нарешті ми потребуємо кращого міжнародного режиму у координації зусиль попередження конфлікту. Це вимагає не тільки більшої передачі фондів, але також більш ефективне співробітництво між існуючими міжнародними організаціями. 7. What is true of the press in relation to government is also true in its relation to other institutions and special-interest groups. The press acts as intermediary, transmitting information about business, education, scientific development, culture — and also providing public feedback. The objective is understanding between the institutions and their publics in the interest of an open and a smooth-functioning society. As with government, conditions exist for secrecy and news management by these other institutions. Business, universities, school system, scientific "think tanks", and museums have public relations officials whose inclination is to emphasize good points and minimize bad ones. Thus, as surrogate for the public, the press plays the adversary, monitoring for fraud, mismanagement, and misuse of public funds. Що вірно про пресу відносно уряду, також вірно у стосунку до інших установ та груп із спеціальними інтересами. Преса діє як посередник передача інформації відносно бізнесу, освіти, наукового розвитку, культури — і також забезпечення зворотного зв'язку громадськості. Мета розуміє між установами та їх громадськістю в інтересі відкритого і рівного громада функціонування. Як з урядом, умови існують для таємності та управління новин цими іншими інститутами. Бізнес, університети, шкільна система, наукові "думати резервуари", та музеї мають посадові особи зв'язків, чия схильність є підкреслювати гарні пункти та мінімізуйте погані. Таким чином, як ідентифікатор об'єкту для громадськості, преса грає супротивника слідкуючи за шахрайством, неправильним керівництвом та неправильним вживанням державного фінансування. 3. Комплексні вправи з різних граматичних труднощів перекладу I 1. Clearly, some principle is needed to resolve the dilemma. 2. The data were quantified and, one assumes, submitted to statistical testing. 3. Yet the approach is not as comprehensive as it understands itself to be. 4. This is not to say that the article does not present a kind of argument. 5. Anyone using this bibliography should take not of one important limitation. 6. However, it is interesting to note that the same is also true of other cases. 7. Interestingly, Corbett uses the hierarchies to make two distinct predictions. 8. One may disagree with the definitions of numerous concepts as provided by Powell. 9. There is not evidence in favor of our fourth analysis. 10. It makes little sense to change the term in this article, so I continue to use it despite its misleading connotations. 11. The presentations of each approach are, given their brevity, surprisingly comprehensive. 12. Clearly, the explanations which I offer hare are to be taken only as suggestive. 13. This approach suffers, however, from some empirical and theoretical difficulties. 14. And, as we have seen, this requires us to consider the consequences of alternative analyses for the theory. 15. But we have just seen that this is probably not possible. 16. Some theoretical assumptions behind this approach should be explicated. 17. What we most emphatically cannot do is to rely on traditional analyses because they are traditional. 18. This conclusion confirms the tentative conclusion that we have reached earlier. 19. I shall have nothing else to say about these cases for lack of reliable data and new ideas. 20. Another major empirical lapse is that he never examines the kind of data that could test his claim. 21. However, none of the results we have reviewed conclusively separate the effects. 22. These considerations lead to a familiar conclusion, though it is not Blight's. 23. A number of experimental studies have tested this hypothesis. 24. Opposed to this are two factors, neither measurable. 25. Notice the striking similarity this description bears to his observations. 26. As Theodosius Dobzhansky noted, nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution. 27. The proof of this may be as follows. 28. This equation is readily seen to be of the same form as Eq.(14). 29. This problem is far too involved for one to be able to solve it. 30. The small number of subjects also raises the question of whether the results can be generalized. 31. These results held even given a significantly great amount of variance in the latter group. 32. Another concern may involve the fact that the evidence in these early studies is relative. 33. For several reasons, it might be considered that this early set of studies is not conclusive. 34. Each of these issues is addressed in more recent research using different methods. 35. My approaches to the construction of this schedule are departures from the methods so far described. 36. Notice too that this analysis violates one of the formal points made earlier. 37. Further difficulties arise for the strong version of the theory when one considers the object's behavior. 38. In the light of this, serious attention needs to be focused on this question. 39. As the discussion progresses, various more sophisticated treatments will be considered. 40. The results obtained proved to be analogous to those reported by previous authors. 41. As an illustration of the kind of approach I have in mined, consider the following analysis. 42. A serious difficulty will be in that such processes have not yet been considered. 43. Suffice it to say that there are a number of arguments that converge to make possible this idea. 44. It is for this reason that the solution fails. 45. I have argued that they cannot be accounted for by a Katzean theory. 46. Such principles cannot be handled on purely Johnsonian lines. 47. The past decade has witnessed a growing interest in relating various disciplines. 48. The model resulting is to be checked against extensive empirical data. 49. The assumption has been formulated by Deinrich (1992) and I shall refer to it as the Deinrich Principle. 50. It will be useful and instructive to digress into presenting new empirical data obtained. 51. Theoretically, the generalizations proposed in (3) have the advantage of comparative simplicity. 52. It should be observed that such a solution is in accord with modern logic. 53. Preparatory to this, the concept of "category" to be employed must be delimited. 54. Meanwhile, limiting the scope of the inquiry appears to be inevitable. 55. The theory deserves our attention, if only to expose the difficulties into which it is bound to run. 56. In this respect the suggestions under discussion seem to differ from Greenean ones. 57. This seems to me to be a fact that the theory should take into account. 58. However, it seems to me that this distinction is not really one which should be captured by that analysis. 59. Little essential increase in insight or explanation is imposed upon the usually intractable data. 60. Among the advantages to be derived by the use of this model is the possibility of obtaining simple measures. 61. It is imaginable that under specific conditions the constraint does not apply. 62. In striving toward this aim, the monograph also offers insights about other relevant conditions. 63. Among the various possibilities, some seem to be of particular importance. 64. And, finally, I am bothered by the solution Tamren offers in her final chapter. 65. It is hoped that these new data, while perhaps not more persuasive than the old, do provide sufficient evidence. 66. But what we must attend to here is how two such inconsistent beliefs can manage to coexist. 67. However, this should pose no problem for her approach: all she needs to do is give up spurious generalizations. 68. Multivariate statistical techniques, such as factor analysis, are required for this task. 69. This suggested that a single principal component was all that needed to be extracted from the data. 70. But, as Partee also observes, many problems still must be faced if such a unification is really to be spelled out.. 71. Thus, the analysis may help us to disclose, and thereby to question, what is usually taken for granted. 72. It is in this spirit that I offer the following tentative and in many ways premature suggestions in one small but important area. 73. The Hornian "division of labor" does appear to have analogues in empirical findings. 74. To make the clash of principles clear, consider the kind of reasoning thought to underlie the following thesis. 75. Neither approach, as it happens, offers much insight. 76. First, there is plenty of evidence that the problem might be the other way round. 77. It will be argued that Soare's argument against reduction is debatable. 78. There appears to be a bid for more investment of resources into developing more effective techniques and materials. 79. Thus, it is becoming more and more plausible that men are analog automata, rather than discrete ones. 80. I reiterate here some further considerations which seem to me to argue against this approach. 81. Most significantly, the need for such laws proves to have been largely illusory. 82. It is impossible to do justice here to the complex of Prefetti's theory, so a brief statement will have to suffice. 83. The work makes no claim other than that such a research program has a good chance of providing interesting results. 84. The pattern that emerges is that the only factors which correctly predict anything are too specific to serve as the basis for a theory. 85. This study should not be viewed as a case where external evidence conflicts with internal evidence. 86. In order to test these predictions, we need both a source of data and a way to determine what error rate is expected by chance. 87. This is not to say that the book should be of on interest to the formally minded. 88. One could append some stipulation to the present treatment, but this would be purely ad hoc. 89. In sum, then, the connection between the sources used and those listed in the bibliography is much looser than one would expect. 90. It should be noted that Campbell often uses fairly old sources when more modern and more accurate one are available. 91. The motivation for including this factor is provided by the observation that complex systems are more likely to change than simple ones. 92. This practice is entirely inappropriate, particularly when the interpretation of the evidence is controversial. 93. In both instances, it seems to me, the evidence is too thin to bear the weight of the theoretical proposals being made. 94. The impact of this variegated work is hard to assess; many of his ideas are still being explored. 95. His model does not appear to add anything substantial to the discussion, and is even incorrect in some basic respects. 96. In part, this restriction is intended to limit discussion of research findings to a set of studies with consistent controls and coherent research plans. 97. It is concluded that Haugeland's definitions are the best suited to act as a guide to comparing and contrasting claims about the model's validity. 98. Given seemingly arbitrary values, there seems little that one cannot "explain". 99. This cannot be done in a single experiment, given the assumptions of these two authors. 100. All things being equal, one would prefer the general solution to a particular one which only accounted for part of the data. II 101. The point here is not that one cannot account for these facts under her analysis, or under the alternative analysis mentioned above. It is rather that there is no prediction at all about this mass of facts. 102. Second, R. Lass -- to the extent that it is possible at all -- avoids theoretical bias and overt persuasion, without, at the same time, losing character, and personal warmth and conviction. The argument in each case is well-balanced and a definite solution is seldom suggested. Rather, the discussion proceeds in terms of a problem-solving game, with valid arguments characteristically distributed on both sides. 103. The general framework within which this investigation will proceed has been presented in many places and some familiarity with the theoretical and descriptive studies listed in the bibliography is presupposed. In this chapter I shall survey briefly some of the main background assumptions, making no serious attempt here to justify them but only to sketch them clearly. 104. Firstly, we will explain those issues that should be investigated in order to provide a better theoretical background of the practical application of the method. Secondly, we will explain those issues that in order to justify and improve the practical outcome found up until now could be considered of great importance. 105. It is difficult to read the philosophical literature on these topics (the round square, imaginary objects) without arriving at the conclusion that much of the difficulty surrounding them stems from an insistence that complex questions be given simple, unqualified, and categorical answers. 106. Now in terms of general scientific principles, such a procedure is indefensible: when a theory is not sufficiently powerful to permit the motivation of decisions required in the analysis which it underlies, it should either be modified to make it more powerful, or simply discarded (and, perhaps, replaced by another). 107. Adequate knowledge of the material, though a prerequisite for any useful scholarly activity, is no guarantee of a valid analysis, however. In the following I intend to show how one or two false theoretical assumptions can lead astray a scholar who is known for his insistence on the perusal of an accurate and comprehensive body of data. 108. I feel that a reduction in aim as represented by opting for the second alternative still permits the examination of many interesting items, which should greatly improve our understanding of the issue. Within such a model, one postulated correlation between a given type of structure and the changes which it undergoes, without claiming that the changes are wholly determined by the existence of the structure. 109. However, I think that the central facts are clear enough, and there has, in fact, been overwhelming accord about most of them. For present purposes, I shall raise no further question (except of detail) about the adequacy of these observations, taking them simply as facts to be accounted for by any theory. 110. If one wishes to avoid the consequences of the Carr argument and of other similar arguments, there are two possible ways out. First, one can deny that the form of the argument is valid. Second, one can claim that the generalization is spurious. Let us start with the first way out. 111. There is, of course, an enormous literature in the philosophy of science discussing such concepts as "theory", "scientific law", and the nature of scientific explanation. To consider all the major issues raised in the literature is beyond the scope of the present paper. However, for the sake of clarity in the subsequent discussion, it will be advisable to consider, even if only briefly, a few main points. 112. Finite generalizations make general claims embracing finite sets of individual facts. Since the set of facts covered is finite, each individual fact can in principle be checked. If all individual facts conform to the generalization, it is verified; if some facts constitute counter-examples, the generalization is falsified. 113. I will not attempt to justify this principle here; I have suggested arguments in favor of it elsewhere (Castairs 1994). There is no doubt that the strong version of the Principle just given is too strong: it certainly needs qualification and refinement. But the principle as stated seems to me close enough to the truth to warrant further exploration. 114. So far no single measurement has been made with enough precision to settle the question unambiguously. Several independent tests are possible, however, and pieces of the puzzle have been supplied by many workers employing quite different techniques. It now seems feasible to assemble the pieces. Taken together, the available evidence suggests that the universe is open and that its expansion will never cease. 115. The moral of all this is that, in the current state of our art and science. there are simply too many alternatives available -- both in the choice for analyses within a fixed framework, and in the choice of frameworks. I believe there is a reason for this situation, and my next section is devoted to a discussion of it. 116. What I have said so far is, I think, uncontroversial in the sense that the description has proceeded without my having to take up a position on any well-worn point of controversy. It has a consequence, just alluded to, which should be equally uncontroversial, and which I shall labour a little now, partly in order to distinguish it from any prise de position on a matter which is undoubtedly one of controversy. 117. This time, so many good abstracts had been submitted that the programme had to be organized in sections. I am most grateful to colleagues, who offered valuable comments on some but not all of the papers I could not hear myself. However, I alone must take the responsibility for all failures to mention valuable contributions, instances of excessive bias and the other deficiencies in this paper. 118. Researchers must allow the data to change their preconceived notions rather than ignore or suppress portion of the evidence in order to keep them alive. Earlier research must be carefully reviewed and the views honestly presented. Of paramount importance is the close study of the original sources and not, as a short-cut, of secondary literature. I mentioned several references that still await exploitation. All this seems to be self-evident, but reality shows that, unfortunately, it is not. In view if the state of the research and the tasks still to fulfill it seems that we have a rather long way to go. 119. As the model proposed is not in any obvious way related to or a product of the research preceding it, it is difficult to believe the author's claim that it came about as a result of the research. Given the fact that the research failed to find any correlation between model and attitude, it is difficult to understand why authors would go to the trouble of proposing a new model at all. 120. At first sight, this study seems to cover territory too uncomfortably diffuse and difficult to define to merit the space. However, second and third readings have convinced me that work in this much neglected area is important, and challenging enough to deserve closer attention. 121. That it should have proved necessary for Firloin to reiterate the research agenda first propounded by Fergusson is in itself lamentable commentary on the current state of scientific understanding of the problem, notwithstanding the accumulation of more than three decades' worth of research debate, and scholarly publication on the subject. 122. This raises an interesting question as to whether the same phenomena might have two different, equally valid, explanations. Such an assumption is in conflict with a common view that, if two different theories are advanced to explain the same fact, at least one of them must be wrong. This is a question I will return to later. 123. The number of possible tests, while not being infinite, is large. It is unreasonable to expect all possible tests to be conducted. The need exists to use reason and some form of experimental design strategy to optimize the range of results while minimizing the number of tests. 124. If, in accordance with these developments, a fundamental reassessment of theory is under way, one might expect to find evidence for it in recent discussions of the nature of scientific explanations. Presumably, theories are formulated for their explanatory value. To me, at least, the expression "explanatory theory" contains redundancy: to say that one has a theory, but it does not explain anything, is an odd locution. 125. Many kinds of expertise would be required to give these essays a comprehensive critique, and some kinds are beyond my control. So my remarks will be primarily on a few selected points, in the hope that other parts of the book will be taken up by others elsewhere. 126. While blind imitation or use of western solutions should be deplored, one should not lose sight of the fact the existing theoretical models provide useful frames of reference which can be altered, revised, and improved upon for goals suitable to a particular situation. 127. One must understand the range of facts for which the theory proposes to account, its formal properties, its history, and alternative theories developed in response to problems within it (i.e., motivations for changing it). This entails knowing a good deal both about particular facts and particular analyses proposed both strictly and less strictly within the theory. 128. It is impossible to say with absolute certainty that this principle lay at the heart of their analytical method. Nonetheless, the laws of scientific inquiry compel us to ascribe such a principle to them. Nor could the principle have been implicit or unconscious. 129. I, like many others, find this a reasonable notion; but of course it contains the highly ambiguous term "law", which has itself been the subject of wide-ranging discussion. In particular, there are differences in levels of generalization, and many attempts have been made to distinguish empirical generalizations from laws which are genuinely explanatory. 130. There can be little point in further extending this recital of her lapses. But some mention should be made of her numerous inaccurate and uninformed claims in the area of scholarship in which there is a substantial body of material that she has simply chosen not to consult. 131. Data that were problematic for an earlier version of the theory may become tractable when viewed from a fresh perspective. And when one returns to old data from a new perspective, one can get a sense of how much progress has been made in the field. 132. But the most important lesson to be learned here, in my opinion, was best summarized by Esper -- who, like Antilla, was distressed by much of what he saw in the theory. Commenting on another scholar's attack on me, Esper said: “This reaction shares with its provocation the blame for the loss of that friendly interstimulation among scholars which is so powerful a motivating force in the development of any science. 133. Given the ambitious nature of the paper, and the range of issues dealt with in a short space, the treatment of questions is adequate; but a much fuller treatment of the topic can be found in Chisholm 1992. One assumes that this was published too late to find its way in to the bibliography here, though this is not an excuse for some omissions; indeed, there are references in the general bibliography to material published in 1991. 134. But Catford's hypothesis -- which he presents as an essential part of his overall argument -- is almost certainly misguided; and his efforts to maintain it, despite non-conforming evidence, involve serious methodological lapses. What remains is a set of separate claims that appear to be valid provided that the descriptive data on which they are based have not been subjected to systematic reporting bias. 135. An Inter- University Research Center has been established in Montreal. The Center is under the auspices of three Montreal universities: McGill University, Universite de Montreal, and Universite du Quebec. The Center opened in the fall of 1990 and its offices and documentation workshops are at Rooms 3605 and 3606. Its immediate plans include seminars and lecture series, and an international colloquium. A number of subsidized research teams in Quebec are part of the Center. Individual researchers and postdoctoral fellows are invited to join in. 136. Previously, however, his ideas have always been presented in the form of articles: experimental reports, critiques of received views, and essays in defense and illustration of the theoretical positions that are by now firmly associated with his name. Now he has undertaken to integrate the themes of four decades' work into a coherent, consistent whole. 137. In such cases, progress can be made by asking whether, given the existing set of hypotheses, and making no further special assumptions, the generalization in question is likely or unlikely to be true. If, in the context of the existing set of hypotheses, a true generalization is in fact very unlikely to be true, then we are justified in either adopting some new hypothesis from which the generalization follows, or abandoning some of the existing hypotheses. 138. My motives for bringing up the issue are three, two of which have already partially shown themselves. First, I want to disentangle this issue of controversy from other questions with which it is sometimes confused. Second, I want to dispel the illusion that the issue of controversy can be speedily settled, one way or the other, by a brisk little argument. Third, I want to indicate one way -- no doubt there are more -- in which, without positive commitment to either rival theory, we may find the issues they raise worth pursuing and refining. I shall say something on all three points, though most on the third. 139. One of the frequent tragedies of publishing is the long delay between the production of a timely piece of scholarship and the availability of that scholarship to the profession. This set of papers is a case in point; although the Ford Foundation convened another working conference on the subject in Toronto in 1994, the 1992 papers did not appear until the second conference was over. Many of the writers of the 1992 papers deplore the absence of an extensive literature in the field. Their concern, valid enough in 1992,has dated the papers even before their appearance. One wonders why the appended reading list was not updated, even though the papers could not be. Surely, there must be a way to produce papers more quickly in print so that others may read them. 140. In view of these methodological similarities, it is difficult to see how she can reasonably attack the general approach to the study of change exemplified in Vinarsky's work without also attacking the Gothenburg team approach. Nor is it easy to see why she would want to attack either one, as long as the limitations are clearly recognized. She might, and no doubt would, still object to the validity of Vinarsky's results; but she is attacking here the methodology more than the results. 141. Since what we are most concerned with is not evidence, but rather the definition of what we are talking I doubt that the matter can be settled by any means at our disposal. The author has done valuable work by collecting the material presented in his comparative tables; with the errors corrected, they will remain as a very useful reference work. 142. A few senior scholars attached to the Liege faculty have been eclectics, preferring a variety of light active involvements to a single, sharply-profiled specialization. One such many-sided teacher, for decades, has been Maurice Pirou who has to his credit an annotated edition (1961) of the short treatise by Turgot (1727-1781), which employed prominence within the context of French Enlightenment. This work by Pirou, which upon its publication more than twenty years ago produced few immediate reverberations (as well as, one is led to conjecture, that scholar's subsequent lecture courses and seminars) prompted his disciple Droixhe, a decade or so ago, to plunge into the newly plowed-over field. 143. It is true that, in physics, analysis of fundamental equations has led to spectacular predictions; but this situation is rather unique. Biology, botany, chemistry (until recently) and geology do not have this character. The special status of physics has been made popular since Kant by philosophy textbooks which still, too often, neglect the discussion of other natural sciences. 144. Most of my own work, however, has been in the human sciences, as is suggested by the models described in this article. An increasing number of investigators are now suggesting models derived from catastrophe theory, but in the coming decade I look forward to seeing those models tested by experiment. Only then can we judge the true worth of the method. 145. Certainly, a physical scientist who has not explicitly designed an "experimentum crucis" is reluctant to abandon his theory on the basis of one experimental failure. Nevertheless, it is his or her responsibility to demonstrate, either by experimental repetition under better conditions or by an analysis, that the given experimental result inconsistent with his or her hypothesis is in fact erroneous by reason of experimental error. III 146. Any object or concept can be represented as a form, a topological surface, and, consequently, any process can be regarded as a transition from one form to another. If the transition is smooth and continuous, there are well-established mathematical methods for describing it. In nature, however, the evolution of forms is rarely smooth; it usually involves abrupt changes and perplexing divergencies. Such discontinuous and divergent phenomena have long resisted mathematical analysis, and in most cases quantitative description is still unattainable. In the past few years, however, a method for the construction of qualitative, topological models have been developed. 147. This paper presents the argument that is quite impossible to say, at the moment, if the structure of though influences the structure of language. One might reasonably ask why such an argument needs to be presented. There would thus seem to be no room for argument. There is, however, a sense in which the influence of thought is not obvious. In fact, in this further though, the question remains entirely open and no one can yet say what connection, if any, there is between though and language. But that is the argument of the paper. To explain the argument, it is necessary first to describe how language appears to be acquired. The account will necessarily be brief; a more complete description can be found elsewhere (McMorgan 1994). 148. I will start by citing what I consider a commonsensical explanation as stated by Barstow (1994:154): "We might take as necessary ingredients of an act of explanation (1) some phenomenon, (2) some puzzlement about the phenomenon, (3) some hypothesis about the phenomenon, (4) some grounds for feeling that the hypothesis is correct". With regard to the first of these, I see no reason for us to restrict ourselves in advance regarding the type of phenomenon to be explained. 149. Generalizations are not made in a theoretical void. They are put forward against a background of a more or less well-developed theory, and with a view to adding a new hypothesis to this theory, is necessary. I some true generalizations follow from the corpus of hypotheses constituting some accepted theory, then that theory is not thereby in need of augmentation by a new hypothesis. Conversely, if the contradictory of some true generalization follows from some set of hypotheses, then at least one of those hypotheses must be wrong and should be abandoned. Between these two extremes, we have the case of a true generalization which neither absolutely confirms nor absolutely disconfirms an existing set of hypotheses. 150. As far as the structure of a logical system is concerned, the distinction between assumption and axiom may not seem essential. This is the case of first order logic and intuitionistic logic. For these logical systems, it does not matter, when applying an inference rule, whether or not the formulas involved are assumptions. This is not the case for all logical systems. For some of them, this distinction can be very important. This is the case of linear logic and some relevance logic. 151. Third, and perhaps most important, science is invariably open-minded and non-dogmatic. It holds even its best theories tentatively and sees them as always subject to change, and does not claim that they describe the nature of things for all possible conditions and for all times. It is exceptionally flexible and never devout. 152. Science uses logic, both Aristotelian and non-Aristotelian, to check its hypotheses, and usually ends up with theories that are not self-contradictory and are not falsified by other views of people and the world. It rules out magic, cavalier jumping to conclusions, and many illogical "non sequiturs.” 153. First, his original premises, retained even by his critics, are shown to be false. Next, the question is redefined and reformulated on the basis of a much fuller survey of the secondary literature, with new source material added. This reveals new connections at once more precise and more extensive. Finally, some general conclusions are drawn, and -- what has by now come to seem of no less importance -- the causes, effects, and cures of a historiographical chaos, by no means unique to this particular question -- are indicated. 154. The proposed model does not appear to be based on the research at all but rather on the authors' own intuitions. The only apparent virtue of the ideal model is that it is different from the four studies. However, different does not necessarily means better, particularly when one considers the expense to implement the ideal model. 155. In my opinion, even the way we subdivide science shows Western science as dualistic and elementalistic in structure. Physics, the study of "physical happenings”, stands opposed to psychology, the study of "mental happenings". The revolutionary theories of twentieth-century physics do include some metadiscussion of how an observer/experimenter arrives at her/his picture of "physical happenings", and in the mathematics of the theories, some heavily metaphorical representations of such topics. But to date, the community of scientists has neither accepted any non-dualistic and non-elementaistic theory, nor even agreed that such a theory exists. 156. This is a scientific model which applies to sciences like physics which observe phenomena with a limited number of variables, and a consistent behaviour of them -- but also then the application of the model will not completely be without problems, inasmuch as it requires a certain amount of simplification of reality. The model is most suitable for theoretical constructions like mathematics, but it cannot apply to research fields with a higher number of variables , with inconsistent behaviour as are found in the humanities. 157. If we mean by "theory", along with the definition of the "Encyclopedia Britannica", "a systematic ideational structure of broad scope, conceived by the imagination of man, that encompasses a family of empirical (experimental) laws regarding regularities existing in objects and events, both observed and posited — a structure suggested by these laws and devised to explain them in a scientifically rational manner", then this construction cannot be considered a theory under any meaningful current sense. The "Encyclopedia Britannica" goes then further as follows:"... whereas empirical laws each express a unifying relationship among a small selection of observables, scientific theories have much greater scope, explaining a variety of such laws and predicting others as yet undiscovered. 158. We can compare competing theoretical systems in regard to such characteristics as these: a) the clarity and precision with which the theories are formulated; b) the systematic, i.e. explanatory and predictive, power of the systems in regard to observable phenomena; c) the formal simplicity of the theoretical systems with which a certain systematic power is attained; d) the extent to which the theories have been confirmed by experimental evidence. 159. To conclude this discussion of dogma in the theory, let us note that its adherents seem trapped in the dilemma of the chicken and the egg (Popper 1963:47). They insist constantly on the truism that accumulating data without prior ideas or theories is a senseless activity, hence the necessity to elaborate theories first. This type of criticism has been applied to the taxonomy of many forms; but if it had been applied to biology or physics, Hooke would have been forbidden to look into his microscope, or nuclear physicists to use particle accelerators. Fortunately, such questions are raised only rarely by working scientists. A scientist who accepts the theories of electromagnetism and of bubble nucleation will nevertheless search literally millions of images in order to find particles for which he has no theory. 160. Here one could embark on an excursus into philosophy of science. Are descriptive theories in fact explanatory ? When Watson and Crick proposed a structure for DNA, were they providing a description or an explanation ? Instead, I would like to call a truce. I believe that certain descriptions are explanatory, but I will accept that some explanations are not descriptive. A number of questions now naturally arise. What sort of things count as explanatory for Bridges ? Are here explanations valid ? And, at least for those of us who remain tied to description, are these explanations useful to the descriptive enterprise ? 161. It is true that the differences in analysis cannot be divorced from differences among the theories in terms of which the analyses are couched; for example, if a theory does not provide the apparatus needed for identifying the two processes, then either this option is wrong or the theory is wrong. This is precisely why the debate is important. Equally, it could, in principle, turn out that the only way to choose among the alternative analyses is by invoking theory- internal principles; this conclusion will be forced on us if we cannot find any relevant facts. However, I think there are enough facts to make the choice on empirical grounds, which will allow us to draw appropriate theoretical conclusions afterwards. 162. Bach's statement regarding scientific explanation raises a further issue which requires discussion -- namely his third point, that an explanation requires "some hypothesis about the phenomenon". Discussion of this matter in the philosophy of science has tended to revolve around the thesis concerning explanation which was first advanced by Heugel, commonly called the deductive-nonlogical, or sometimes the "covering law" model. Briefly stated, the explanandum or "the thing to be explained”, if it can be deduced from a base, can be derived from the explanans which contains at least one law. The explanans or deductive basis will also, in explaining individual events, include one or more particular statements, often called initial conditions. 163. I mentioned above the requirement that the statement of laws in a theory should be minimized. A scientific law can be regarded as a hypothesis that is generally accepted as true; and since anyone who postulates a hypothesis does so in the belief that it may be true, i.e. that it may turn out to be a law (although of course the truth of a hypothesis can never be known for certain), we are also required to keep the postulation of hypotheses to a minimum. Hypotheses are formulated in such a way that generalizations follow from them, but it is possible in principle to formulate any number of saturate hypotheses from which the same generalizations follow. This is undesirable. There is no need for an "overkill" of generalizations by hypotheses. If a generalization follows from one hypothesis (or, more usually, from a set of hypotheses), then we do not need another to account for it. 164. What is interesting is that the authors did not subject their ideal model to any of the analyses used to critique the four models discussed in the research section. As the model proposed is not in any way related to or a product of the research preceding it, it is difficult to believe the authors' claim that it came about as a result of the research. Given the fact that the research failed to find any correlation between model and attitude, it is difficult to understand why the authors would go to the trouble of proposing a new model at all. The proposed model does not appear to be based on the research at all but rather on the authors' own intuitions -- the very approach to curriculum development they criticize in their introduction. 165. The past decade can be characterized as a time of excited searching for the right conceptual tools and methods to investigate the relations between these two spheres. The appearance of the above-mentioned books reflects a period of assessment, consolidation, and institutionalization of these concepts and practices. Each of the books attempts to describe the regularities that can be found in the ways that the two domains interact, and tries to state the principles that must underlie the regularities. The authors, and the approaches which they represent, differ in their views of explanation, their means of getting at the regularities, and their characterization of data. We find it useful to locate these works in relation to three broad schools or approaches, which we sketch as prototypes with, we admit, highly reducive names: the Philosophers, the Data Gatherers, and the close Readers. The Data Gatherers are united in opposing the Philosophers' indifference to "real" data; but, otherwise, they split rather sharply into three groups according to their preferences on how to get useful data. The Close Readers are willing to sacrifice the obvious generality claimed by the Data Gatherers in order to conduct an intensive micro- analysis, either to focus on a particular phenomenon or to carry out a many-leveled analysis. 166. "The Collected Writings" contains a wide range of publications by Korzybski: formal academic papers (fifteen), "comments" or forewords to work by others (twelve), complete letters and excerpts, transcripts, mimeographs, book reviews, memoranda, editorials and even an obituary and one patent application. The remaining twenty-five percent of the book consists of material not authored by Korzybski: nine complete articles for which he wrote review articles for or made comments on, programs for congresses of 1935, 1941 and 1949, a context-setting overview of the formative influences on Korzybski by A.W. Read, a biographical sketch by C. Schuchardt (Read) , scientific opinions and other comments on the first and second editions of "Science and Sanity", and an enlightening selection of items relevant to the founding and subsequent development of the Institute and the International Society. 167. Yet on the face of it, it is not necessary to believe that knowledge of nature must turn out to be organizable in a philosophically satisfactory way. From a suitable distance, we cannot soundly claim that the historic development of science has proved nature to be understandable in a unique way. What had happened is that the ground of the unknown has continually been shifted, the allegory has continually changed. David Hume expressed this in 1773: "While Newton seemed to draw off the veil from some of the mysteries of nature, he showed at the same time the imperfections of this mechanical philosophy, and thereby restored her ultimate secrets to that obscurity in which they ever did and ever will remain". In the empirical sciences, we are far from being able to prove that we have been approaching an increasing understanding of the type that characterized the development of, say, some branches of mathematics. Our interests and tools change, but not in a linear, inevitable way. For example, the historic development from organismic science to a mechanistic and then to the mathematical style could have taken place in the opposite direction. And the ontological status of scientific knowledge itself has been turned completely upside down since the beginning of the twentieth century. The experimental detail is now not simply the token of a real world; on the contrary, to some scientists and philosophers it is all that we can be more or less sure about at the moment. Karl Popper summarized this view in these words: “I think that we shall have to get accustomed to the idea that we must not look upon science as a "body of knowledge", but rather as a system of hypotheses; that is to say, as a system of guesses and anticipations which in principle cannot be justified, but with which we work as long as they stand up to tests, and of which we are never justified in saying that we know that they are "true" or "more or less certain" or even "probable". Our justification for these hypotheses is that they have a hold on our imagination and that they help us to deal with our experience. On this basis, all the scientist needs to say, if anyone should ask what he or she is doing, is: hypotheses fingo. This — a new methodological thema reinforced by the scientific advances of the first two decades of our century — was precisely what Lodge, Larmor, Poincare and so many others could not accept. Poincare, who was perhaps technically the best-prepared scientist in the world to understand Einstein's relativity theory of 1905, did not deign to refer to it once in his large published output up to his death in 1912. This silence was not mere negligence; Poincare, despite his silence, had understood a consequence of the new physics only too well. The Data Gatherers in order to conduct an intensive micro-analysis to focus on a particular phenomenon. Покажчик способів перекладу англійських слів різних частин мови (цифрою позначено сторінку) Іменник 93, 94, 97, 116, 164, 188, 229, 243, 249 Прикметник 45, 181, 183, 184, 187, 207, 250 Дієслово особові форми 23, 28, 30, 33, 37, 259, 264, 267, 271 неособові форми інфінітив 49, 53, 60, 63, 90, 99, 114, 127, 136, 138, 191, 224, 229 герундій 45, 88, 119, 151, 198, 226 дієприкметник I 41, 157, 201 дієприкметник II 43, 119, 147, 162, 166, 203, 207 модальні дієслова 34, 49, 53, 60, 63, 78 Займенник 78, 87, 98, 109, 111, 113, 208, 252, 254, 257 Прислівник 125, 134 Числівник 221, 254 Сполучник і сполучне слово 72, 105, 122, 149, 170, 173, 210, 220, 235, 257 Прийменник 35, 91, 102, 118, 137, 196 Детермінант речення 125, 130 Неозначений артикль 177 Означений артикль 86, 179 |