NEW Учебник_ Английский 2022 (3)-1. University Life Learning Process and Challenges Students Face while Studying
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PART 1. HISTORY OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE US, TYPES OF THE AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS Read the text and speak on the main types of higher educational institutions in the USA. According to UNESCO the USA has the second largest number of higher education institutions in the world. According to the Webometrics Ranking of the World Universities the main 103 US universities are in the Top 200. The system of higher education in the United States differs from its counterparts in Europe in certain ways. Higher education in the US refers to all formal education beyond the secondary level. The country does not have a national university system but rather many private and public institutions, each with differing academic regulations, calendars, departmental structures, and course offerings. The academic standards of American colleges and universities vary greatly, and some institutions are better known for the quality of their social life or sports teams than for their academic achievements. Establishments range from vast educational ‘plants’ (with as many as 50,000 students) offering the most advanced training available, to small private academies emphasizing personal instruction and a preference for the humanities or experimentation. Major universities are like small cities with their own shops, banks, police and fire departments, and are usually renowned for the excellence of their teaching, research facilities, libraries and sports facilities. US colleges and universities offer diverse educational venues: some emphasize a vocational, business, engineering, or technical curriculum (like polytechnic universities and land-grant universities) and others emphasize a liberal arts curriculum. Many combine some or all of the above, as comprehensive universities. All of universities in US. can be divided into the following types: Two-year community colleges are mostly locally controlled and publicly funded. They offer vocational educationleading to technical occupations, and studies which prepare students for entrance to a four-year degree institution. Community college is tuition free for selected students in 47 states, often under the name College Promise*. Most community college instructors have advanced degrees, but serve as part-time low wage laborers. Community college enrollment has declined every year since 2010. The largest enrollment drop occurred in 2020, the latest year surveyed. A two-year college awards an associate degree after two years’ study, e.g. Associate of Arts (AA) and Associate of Science (AS) degrees. The well-known community colleges are: Santa Barbara City College in California, North Central Kansas Technical College in Kansas, Saint Paul College in Minnesota and others. The four-year liberal arts colleges (or four-year institutions) are undergraduate institutions of higher education in the United States that focus on a liberal arts education. They provide pre-professional training of four years or less for students who proceed to advanced professional schools, such as law or medicine, and offer a liberal education for students who don’t enter professional or graduate school. A university college of liberal arts often serves students in parallel undergraduate professional colleges, such as engineering and business administration, by providing them with courses in basic disciplines. Generally, a full-time, four-year course of study at a liberal arts college leads students to earning the Bachelor of Arts or the Bachelor of Science. Among the famous American liberal arts colleges are Williams College in Massachusetts, Swarthmore College in Philadelphia, Franklin & Marshall College Pennsylvania and many others. For-profit colleges also known as proprietary colleges are schools that are owned and operated by a private business or corporation. A group of shareholders, or investors, makes all of the decisions for the college, always with the aim of turning a profit. These colleges include for-profit vocational and technical schools, career colleges, and predominantly online universities. The reputation of for-profit colleges isn’t good. Many of them have had run-ins with the law and been accused of fraud. What’s more, any credits you got from a for-profit college likely won’t transfer to nonprofit schools as the classes and degrees they offer simply aren’t viewed as having any strong academic value. This is why many employers look down on degrees from for-profit colleges. There are some examples of for-profit colleges: American Career College in California, Aspen University (online) based Colorado, American College of Education (online) based in Indianapolis etc. Universities are educational institutions with undergraduate and graduate program. For historical reasons, some universities have retained the term college instead of «university» for their name. Graduate programs grant a variety of master’s degrees (like the Master of Arts (M.A.), Master of Science (M.S.), Master of Business Administration (M.B.A.) or Master of Fine Arts (M.F.A.) in addition to doctorates such as the Ph.D. The American university system is largely decentralized. Public universities are administered by the individual states and territories, usually as part of a state university system. Except for the United States service academies and staff colleges, the federal government does not directly regulate universities. However, it can offer federal grants and any institution that receives federal funds must certify that it has adopted and implemented a drug prevention program that meets federal regulations. Each state supports at least one state university. Public universities often have large student bodies, with introductory classes numbering in the hundreds, with some undergraduate classes taught by graduate students. Tribal colleges operated on Indian reservations by some federally recognized tribes are also public institutions. One of the most surprising and unique aspects of the US education system is that many of the most prestigious universities are private foundations and receive no federal or state funds (their main source of income, in addition to fees, is endowments). Some private universities are secular and others are involved in religious education. Some are non-denominational, and some are affiliated with a certain sect or church, such as Roman Catholicism (with different institutions often sponsored by particular religious institutes such as the Jesuits) or religions such as Lutheranism or Mormonism. Seminaries are private institutions for those preparing to become members of the clergy. The most famous higher education institutions include the Ivy League* universities (called as such because they are old enough for ivy to have grown on the walls): Brown, Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth, Harvard, Pennsylvania, Princeton and Yale. The Ivy League, together with the ‘heavenly seven’ or ‘seven sisters’ (Barnard, Bryn Mawr, Mount Holyoke, Radcliffe, Smith, Vassar and Wellesley) of once all-female colleges, are some of the most prestigious American universities. There are a lot of U.S. universities notable alumni, among them are William R. Hewlett, an American engineer and co-founder of Company Hewlett-Packard, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Sundar Pichai, an Indian-American computer engineer and the current CEO of Google Inc., Stanford University; Jodie Foster, American actress, director, and producer, Yale University; Jeff Bezos, an American entrepreneur, CEO of Amazon, Princeton University; Elon Musk, engineer, entrepreneur and business magnate, University of Pennsylvania; Thomas Eliot an American-English poet, playwright, literary critic, and editor, Harvard University and many others. Tech gurus, Bill Gates and Mark Zuckerberg, the creators of Microsoft and Facebook, respectively, attended Harvard, but dropped out before receiving a degree. PART 2. STRUCTURE OF US HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM Read the text and point out the information dealing with entry requirements, degrees, assessment method, scholarships, tuition fee. Most US universities do not require entrance exams (except for SAT/ ACT* and GRE/GMAT*). Students apply online through university websites. There are normally three intakes per year, i.e. fall, spring, and summer. Students are to prepare at least one year before the expected start of training. In some cases, the whole process takes a few months. An official report can be issued and then sent to the chosen institutions by special independent organizations. The admission process in two-year colleges is much easier than in four-year educational institutions, as it is based on open admissions policy. Requirements are often limited to a high school diploma. In some cases, demonstrating one’s ability to benefit from receiving education is enough. The US higher educational system observes 3 principal levels of study, namely, undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate. Undergraduate degree (or Bachelor’s) can be obtained at four-year educational institutions - colleges and universities. Each year spent here has its own name: freshman, sophomore, junior and senior years. In the initial two years of study, students earn general knowledge and a foundation about a variety of disciplines before focusing on the major. International students can change their majors a number of times. However, it can land you in studying more courses, requiring more time, effort and money. Upon completion, students can be awarded the common titles of Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BS), as well as a number of specialized BFA (Bachelor of Fine Arts), BSW (Bachelor of Social Work), BEng (Bachelor of Engineering), BSN (Bachelor of Science in Nursing), BArch (Bachelor of Architecture) etc. It should be noted that in the USA there are no Bachelor’s degrees in Medicine or Law. These are advanced professional programs offered by graduate schools. However, a person will still have to take a set of courses before entering a medical school. At this point, they are usually referred to as pre-med. Requirements for admission to undergraduate programs in the United States include: a certificate of secondary education (high school diploma or equivalent); minimum GPA (grade point average) equivalent to American 2.5/4.0; minimum language proficiency TOEFL iBT 61 or IELTS 6.0.; a letter of motivation. The latter is very significant for American universities. Students can use it to demonstrate their commitment to a particular college, explain their choice of program and thereby set themselves apart from the other candidates. Depending on the number of courses taken, one may exceed the plan in three years or complete the program «on-time» within six years. Graduate School in the USA While most countries refer to master’s and doctoral studies as postgraduate programs, in the USA this term is almost never used. After receiving bachelor’s, students can continue their education in graduate (grad) schools that are part of the universities. The term postgraduate in United States is usually understood as someone who has completed a graduate program and plans to pursue an academic career. The universities grant master’s degrees (MA, MS, MSW, MFA), professional degrees (MBA- Master of Business Administration, JD- Master of Business Administration, MD - Doctor of Medicine) and doctorates (PhD- Doctor of Philosophy). Master’s in the US - Graduate Master’s degree in the United States is the first step of higher education within graduate schools. Unlike in the UK, there are no purely research master’s programs in America. Instead, they are much more structured and involve taught courses and continuous assessment. For two years, students complete various tasks, take exams, write coursework essays, receive grades, later converted into GPA. It is the average of all the grades obtained by a student in his/her academic studies. Master’s degrees in America are divided into two types: Academic Master’s are less specialized equivalents to taught Master’s in the UK. Academic programs in the United States do not narrow the subject area but offer a comprehensive study of the discipline at an advanced level. Modules (courses) can be mandatory (core subjects and research methodology) and elective (following students’ specific interests). At the final stage, students move on to a dissertation stage, which means conducting an independent study with the support of a supervisor. Professional Master’s provide vocational skills and technical training necessary for future professional careers. They are characterized by a strict syllabus with fewer electives. Professional graduate schools (business, medical, law, etc.) often have partnerships with employers, which affect the content of educational programs and increase their prestige. The result of training is a formal internship in a relevant company or organization. The common requirements are the following: a bachelor’s degree in a relevant field; minimum GPA equivalent to American 3.0/4.0; minimum language proficiency TOEFL iBT 78 or IELTS 6.5., motivational letter. Interviews (in person or online) can be introduced as an additional selection stage for successful applications. Doctorate in the US - Graduate Doctorate is the final stage of higher education in the US and is not based purely on research. American doctoral degrees in medicine and jurisprudence are quite specific and, as a rule, are not recognized in other countries. International students do not usually consider these degrees unless they plan to live and work in the United States after graduation. Talented young people who want to further build a career as a scientist or teacher are entering graduate school. It will take four to six years to study. The student receives the title of Doctor of Philosophy (PhDs) or Doctor of Science, which is equivalent to the Russian title of candidate of science. The main requirements for admission to doctoral program are similar to the Master’s ones. Many universities are allowed to enroll in doctoral studies, having completed only a bachelor’s degree. The Process of Studying Courses in American universities are based on seminars, with small groups of students discussing particular topics. However, there are also traditional lectures, especially for disciplines studied by many students (computer science, medicine, business). The content of the courses varies depending on the program: "liberal arts" programs usually include a large number of elective subjects, while specialized and technical courses are more structured and highly specialized. The process of studying at US universities is flexible. Students make their own schedules, and the main focus is typically on seminars and discussions. Upon admission, applicants choose a ‘major,’ and then can add a ‘minor’. The latter can be a useful supplement to the main profession. For example, a major is in Engineering, and a minor is in Robotics. Alternatively, it may reflect the student’s personal interests: major - Biology, minor - French literature. Education in Master’s and doctoral programs takes place in either graduate or professional schools. The graduate ones combine several areas of study, and professional schools are more specialized. They provide knowledge in a specific area: nursing, law, business, etc. The learning process includes not only research and theory but also regular practice and work related to the topic of the dissertation. Academic year consisting of semesters, includes two main periods - fall and spring, each at 14 – 20 weeks of training, and an additional summer block duration 1-12 weeks. Classes in the first semester usually begins in August and lasts until the end of December, including exams. The second semester runs from January/February to May-June. Winter vacation lasts 2-3 weeks, summer 10-12 weeks. During the semester students study 3-5 subjects in accordance with their schedule. However, in some universities the subjects are not simultaneously and consistently: students concentrate on one subject for three and a half weeks, and then move on to the next. USA manifests a vibrant environment for students from numerous cultures, beliefs and nationalities, studying under the same roof. The campus life is as enjoyable as the facilities of sports and athletics. Academic Credit Systems in the U.S. U.S. higher education is based on credits. The bachelor’s degree is ordinarily obtained not by passing finals examination but rather by the accumulation of course credits. The number of credits is decided by the university depending on the workload the course entails. It varies across universities: while some ask for 110, other ask for 140. Every degree has a mandatory number of credit hours that need to be completed. Tuition Fees, Scholarships and Grants Although the USA is considered to be one of the most expensive countries to study, a lot of students here receive financial aid in the form of scholarships or grants. The most generous offers can be often found in the most prestigious universities. For example, the 5 largest US universities accept students (local and foreign) on a need-blind basis. This means that any promising candidate who has been selected at Harvard, Amherst, Yale, Princeton or MIT, can get some funding, regardless of the financial situation. Government programs are mainly aimed at US citizens, with the exception of several options. The most famous of them - the Fulbright Program - provides an opportunity for graduate students from 160 countries to study in the USA for free for a year or more. A large number of scholarships are also funded by universities, external foundations and private organizations. Some of them, like the Ivy League, cover up to 100% of the tuition fees. Tuition fees vary widely among colleges and universities, and no two institutions charge the same fees. The average cost of tuition fee for public four-year colleges and universities is around $10,000 per year for in-state residents and $25,000 for out-of state residents. For private institutions, the average cost is around $35,000 per year, although you may pay twice as much for tuition at an Ivy League college. Fees for private universities have increased alarmingly in recent years and many colleges have reduced their entrance standards to attract students who can afford the fees. In addition to tuition, this cost includes fees for registration, health center, sports center and parking (all of which must be paid at the start of each semester). Education in the USA is closely connected to the economic situation in the country: educational institutions are supposed to meet the labour market demands. In addition, US universities and colleges are motivated to ensure that their graduates land jobs as soon as possible since employment statistics are an important indicator of their efficiency. Despite multiple advantages, there are some drawbacks of studying in the USA, such as: eligibility requirements, cost of education, different curriculums, rigorous test of competence, diverse climatic conditions and others. To sum up, higher education both in the US and the UK is recognized worldwide for its quality and variety. But education abroad is challenging and competitive, and the student must learn to overcome obstacles and stay on the top. Note* College Promise is a national non-partisan campaign that supports funding the first two years of higher education, starting with community colleges in the United States. While state-level campaigns often lack funding, College Promise highlights growing concerns about unaffordable college costs and student loan debt in the United States. The ACT, originally an abbreviation of American College Testing, is a standardized test used for college admissions in the United States. It is currently administered by ACT, a nonprofit organization of the same name. The ACT test covers four academic skill areas: English, mathematics, reading, and scientific reasoning. It also offers an optional direct writing test. It is accepted by all four-year colleges and universities in the United States as well as more than 225 universities outside of the U.S. The main four ACT test sections are individually scored on a scale of 1–36, and a composite score (the rounded whole number average of the four sections) is provided. The SAT is a standardized test widely used for college admissions in the United States. Since its debut in 1926, its name and scoring have changed several times; originally called the Scholastic Aptitude Test, it was later called the Scholastic Assessment Test, then the SAT Reasoning Test, then simply the SAT. The SAT is wholly owned, developed, and published by the College Board, a private, not-for-profit organization in the United States. It is administered on behalf of the College Board by the Educational Testing Service, which until recently developed the SAT as well. The test is intended to assess students’ readiness for college. The SAT was originally designed not to be aligned with high school curricula, but several adjustments were made for the version of the SAT introduced in 2016, and College Board president David Coleman has said that he also wanted to make the test reflect more closely what students learn in high school with the new Common Core standards. On January 19, 2021, the College Board announced the discontinuation of the optional essay section, as well as its SAT Subject Tests, after June 2021. The Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) is a standardized test that is an admissions requirement for many graduate schools in the United States and Canada and few in other countries. The GRE is owned and administered by Educational Testing Service (ETS). According to ETS, the GRE aims to measure verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning, analytical writing, and critical thinking skills that have been acquired over a long period of learning. The content of the GRE consists of certain specific algebra, geometry, arithmetic, and vocabulary sections. The Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT ) is a computer adaptive test (CAT) intended to assess certain analytical, writing, quantitative, verbal, and reading skills in written English for use in admission to a graduate management program, such as an MBA program. It requires knowledge of certain specific grammar and knowledge of certain specific algebra, geometry, and arithmetic. According to the test-owning company, the Graduate Management Admission Council (GMAC), the GMAT assesses analytical writing and problem-solving abilities while also addressing data sufficiency, logic, and critical reasoning skills that it believes to be vital to real-world business and management success. It can be taken up to five times a year but no more than eight times total. Attempts must be at least 16 days apart. The Ivy League is an American collegiate athletic conference comprising eight private research universities in the Northeastern United States. The term Ivy League is typically used beyond the sports context to refer to the eight schools as a group of elite colleges with connotations of academic excellence, selectivity in admissions, and social elitism Comprehension Check |