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Exercise 2. Read the following word combinations and translate them. Technique of compounding drugs, preventive medicine, to collect herbs, collection of herbs, to identify plants, to select plants, to prepare complex substances, primitive man, old man, civilized person, in a simple way, a modified form, the twentieth century, contribute to chemistry, synthesis of enzymes, scientific observation, a drug action, biochemical analysis. Exercise 3. Translate into Ukrainian. Mind the compound prepositions. 1. As to starch it was then recognized that it gave glucose when heated with dilute sulphuric acid. 2. In the most advanced countries the standard of nutrition of the population has improved due to carbon chemistry during the past fifty years. 3. According to the results of the investigation of the World Health Organization diseases and death from malnutrition in the developing countries are numerous. 4. Depending on the bases of the functional group carbon compounds are divided into several classes. 5. Many carbon compounds play a vital role due to their effect on the processes in the human body. Exercise 4. Answer the following questions. 1. When do you usually go to your district polyclinic? 2. When does your district doctor see his patients? 3. What are the reception hours of your district doctor? 4. What does the registering clerk fill in? 5. What helps a doctor to make a proper diagnosis? 6. Where are patients X-rayed? 7. What may an X-ray examination of the chest reveal? 8. What did your X-ray examination reveal? 9. What does a doctor write in a patient's card? 10. What diseases did you suffer in your childhood? 11. Why must a patient follow the prescribed treatment? 12. When were you running a high temperature? 13. What do you do when you are running a high temperature? 14. Where must you keep the thermometer while taking your temperature? 15. When do you like to be out in the open air? 16. What do you do if you have a bad headache? 17. How long must you stay in bed if you are ill with influenza? 18. What helps to keep the fever down? 19. What were you ill with last year? 20. What does a doctor prescribe you if you have a sore throat? 21. When do you put a hot water bottle on your abdomen (feet)? 22. What does a doctor find out when he feels the patient's pulse? 23. When do you have a cold rubdown? 24. Why do you have a cold rubdown? 25. What diseases may cause complications? 26. What complications may influenza cause? 27. Why do doctors palpate a patient's abdomen? LESSON THIRTY-EIGHT
I. Control Test Variant 1 1. What topic unites the following words together? (Translate them.) Scarlet fever, mumps, measles, influence, contagious, spread of infection, cough, treatment, care and nursing.
3. Fill in the blanks with the necessary words given in brackets. 1. You must take two ... before each meal, (tablets, cough mixture, gargle) 2. If you follow my ... , you will feel better tomorrow, (physician, disease, instructions) 3. When you have a toothache, you must consult ... . (a nurse, a dentist, an oculist) 4. ... operates on people. 'Therapeutist, Psychiatrist, Surgeon) 5. The doctor put down everything she found into my mother's ... . (note, patient's file, prescription) 4. Use the Present, Past or Future Perfect Active Tenses in the following sentences. Translate them. 1. We often (to use) alcohol diluted with water as a solvent. 2. After French, Swedish and German chemists (discover) gallium, scandium and germanium, Mendeleev was recognized the author of the Periodic Law. 3. It is clear that the chemical reaction (to change) the composition .:nd specific properties of this substance. 5. You've heard the following telephone conversation. Guess answers of the other speaker. - Hello. This is Serge speaking. Can I speak to Nina? - Why! What's the matter with her?
Variant 2 1. What topic unites the following words together? (Translate the words.) Substance, remedy, medicine, drugs, powder, tablet, tincture, solution, ointment, prescriptions and instructions, overdosage, plants. 2. Match equivalents, name the topic. pam toothache dentist afraid to hurt trouble polyclinic to have a tooth out immediately to feel better поліклініка видалити зуб почуватись краще біль зубний біль занепокоєння зубний лікар боятися негайно боліти 3. Fill in the blanks with the words formed, drugs, number, branch, knowledge. 1. Each period contributed to the store of... .2. Chemist's shops increase in ... from year to year. 3. The Pharmaceutical Society in Great Britain was newly ... in 1841. 4. Pharmacy is defined as the science of... . 5. In Ukraine pharmacy as a ... of science started its development in the eighteenth century. 4. Translate the following sentences. Name the form of the verb (its tense and voice). 1. The positive effect was associated with the low temperature. 2. Medicinal herbs were collected during our practice at botanical stations. 3. Drug effects will be described after a number of experiments. 5. Make up a story using the words: to cough, illness, temperature, home visiting service, examination, to feel, prescription, medicine, to treat, certificate. Variant З 1. What topic unites the following words together? (Translate the words.) Passport data, pulse, blood pressure, temperature, breathing, strip to the waist, listen to the heart and lungs, catch a cold, running nose. 2. Match equivalents, name the topic. wheelchair підкладне судно air ring напувальник syringe ножиці scissors грілка dropping bottle крісло-каталка hot water bottle міхур для льоду bedpan шприц bandage банки cups пляшечка з дозатором feeding cup бинт 3. Fill in the blanks with prepositions where required. ... Tuesday we had our practical studies ... surgery ... the surgical department ... the regional hospital. Patients are admitted ... this hospital ... different parts ... the region. Just... our practical studies the helicopter landed ... the hospital yard. It turned ... to be an urgent case ... perforated ulcer ... the stomach. The patient was operated ... immediately. 4. Translate the sentences. Name the forms of the verbs (tense and voice). 1. The work at the hospital helps students acquire deep knowledge of nursing. 2. Thousands of future specialists are trained at higher educational establishments. 3. Chemical and physical properties of inorganic substances were thoroughly studied during practical chemistry classes. 4. The industrial revolution of the last century gave birth to new treatment of this disease. 5. Answer the questions:
II. Speaking: Medicinal Plants Exercise 1. Read the words of Greek and Latin origin. Pay attention to the Denunciation. Capsule [-kaepsju:l], codeine ['kaudim], papaverine [p3'peiv9,ri:n], active f'aektiv], --yohological [saika'rochjiksl], alkaloid ['a2lk(3)taid], practical ['prasktiksl], natural [ nastfrel], detective [di'tektiv], continent ['ktmtinsnt], fmit [fru:t], microbe ['maikrsub], collect [ka'lekf factor ['faekta], collection [ks'lekfh], vegetative ['vedgitstiv], process ['prsuses], photosynthes:* [ fsutsu'sinBisis], period ['piariad], constituent [kan'stitjoant], produce [pra'dju-.s], oxydatio:: [.uksi'deifn], activity [ak'tiviti]. pharmacological [.faimaka'hxhjikal], opium ['aupjam". globular ['glnbjula], elliptical [i'liptikal], conical ['knnikal]. aromatic [,ад'зо'таггік], balsamic [bo:l'sasmik], camphorous ['keemfaras], sensation [sen'seijn], official [з'пГзІ], standarc ['stsendad], reserpine ['resapin], valerian [уз'Нагіап], chromatographic [.kraumata'grasfikj. separate ['separeit], inert [і'пз:і], herb [пз:Ь], herbal ['1із:Ьз1], strychnine f'striknim], caffeine ['казгі:п], crystalline ['kristalain]. Exercise 2. Read and translate the following words and word combinations. Herbs and plants, to collect in autumn, five continents and seas, detectives of plants, a plant detective, the time of collecting plants, active constituents, the time of flowering, the weight of the drug, taste, color and odor of plants, to depend upon the amount of volatile constituents, to describe plants, to possess no taste, to possess a characteristic odor, to give name to something, to use different tests and methods, the determination of presence of inorganic elements, a chemical analysis for the determination of activity, chromatographic study, inert materials, herb books, to make the acquaintance of many herbalists, published materials, the development of science. Exercise 3. Group these common root words, name the parts of speech. Increase, detective, medicine, herbal, constitute, differ, taste, oily, lightness, oil, decrease, herbalist, constituent, different, light, herb, detect, tasteless, official, determine, chromatography, development, mix, weight, officially, chromatographic, weigh, medicinal, science, determination, develop, use, scientific, alkaloidal, treatment, treat, useful, scientist, useless, alkaloid, mixture. Exercise 4. Learn active words. a)Parts of a plant: root [ru:t] корінь rhizome ['raizaum] кореневище stem [stem] стебло; стовбур seed [si:d] насіння b)Tasteandodor (смак і запах): distinct [dis'tirjkfj особливий; виразний, чіткий spicy ['spaisi] пряний; гострий bitter ['bits] гіркий agreeable [s'grisbl] приємний inflorescence [,inflr)'res3ns] суцвіття bark [ba:k] кора fruit [fnr.t] плід top [top] верхівка mucilaginous [.mju.'si'laxfynas] слизистий, клейкий astringent [a'strirjcfjant] в'яжучий pungent ['pAnchjsnt] гострий, пікантний c) Form and color (форма й колір): shape [feip] форма elliptic(al) [і'іірпк(зі)] еліптичний round ['raund] круглий broad [bro:d] широкий oblong ['obrorj] продовгуватий, видовжений pale [peil] блідий d) Growthandgathering (ріст і збір): pollination [,pr>li neijn] запилення harvest ['ha:vist] жнива; збирання врожаю ripen ['гаір(з)п] дозрівати, достигати mature [ma'tjua] зрілий; стиглий moisture ['moistfa] волога; вологість Exercise 5. Answer the questions using new words. 1. What parts of a plant may have odor? 2. What color is the bark? 3. Do all plants have roots and rhizomes? 4. Does every plant produce seeds? 6. Where are flowers usually situated? ". What taste of fruit do you like more? Exercise 6. Complete the sentences. 1. The season when fruits or vegetables are gathered is called ... . 2. A full-grown plant :s called ... 3. The part of a plant which grows under the surface of the earth is called .... -. A great number of small flowers which grow together is called ... 6. To separate things of one class from things of another class means ... . 7. A small objet produced by a flowering plant from which another plant may grow is called... . Exercise 7. Answer the alternative questions. 1. Do you like your food to be very or slightly salty? 2. Do you like bitter apples or sweet ones? 3. Is it possible or not to determine a pungent taste? 4. What season do you like more -iummn when fruits ripen or spring when first flowers appear? 5. Do botanists collect fully matured seeds or unripe ones? 6. Are you acquainted with the technique of gathering herbs :r their cultivation? 7. Did you gather plants with roots and rhizomes or the overground part ?f them? 8. What is more difficult: to maintain a high temperature or a low one during the experiment? Exercise 8. Read the text, make up a plan to it. Medicinal Plants Since time immemorial man has known about the medicinal properties of plants and widely -sed them for all practical purposes. At present the attention to medicinal plants as natural sources of drugs has greatly increased. Ten thousand plant detectives try to find new plants rossessing medicinal properties on five continents and all seas. Different parts of a plant may be used for medicinal purposes: roots and rhizomes, fruits ;r.d seeds, flowers and inflorescences, stems and leaves. All these parts are collected in a certain reriod of time. It is well-known that the proper time of harvesting or collecting plants and herbs is during ■'-at period when active constituents of the plant are highest in their number and quality. Roots ir.d rhizomes are collected in autumn after the vegetative processes have finished. Bark is :: ilected in spring before these processes begin. Leaves and flowering tops are collected when : r. otosynthesis is most active which is usually about the time of flowering and before the maturing ::" the fruit and seed. Flowers are collected in the time of pollination. Fruit may be collected r.ther before or after the ripening period. Seeds may be collected when fully matured. Proper storage and preservation are an important factor in maintaining a high degree of :-ality of the drug. Thus, too much moisture increases the weight of the drug, decreases the amount of active constituents. Air and light affect drugs, which are strongly colored, produci". changes in constituents of drags. All parts of the plant differ as to the shape, taste, color, odor, and pharmacological activi:;. Thus, the usual shapes for fruits and seeds are globular, elliptical, ovoid, conical, etc. The odor c: a drug of plant origin may be either distinct or indistinct, depending upon the amount of volatile constituents the drug possesses. It is described as aromatic, balsamic, spicy, camphorous, eu When it is difficult to compare the odor with other substances, it is described as characteristic According to taste substances may be classified into four groups:
The taste, color and odor of drugs are officially standardized with the help of drug description, are of the lightness and strength of the color. Reserpine is described as "a white or pale to slightly yellowish, odorless, crystalline powder". Olive oil is described as "a pale yellow liquid which sometimes has a greenish tint"; rhizome and roots of valerian as "light brown or yellow brown, odor strong and peculiar, taste - spicy, sweetish-bitterish". Pharmacological activity of certain drugs is established using different tests and methods, such as chemical analysis for the determination of presence of inorganic elements, a chemical analysis for the determination of the official activity, chromatographic study to separate and analyse constituents and inert materials occurring in drugs. Exercise 9. Read the sentences. Add attributes to the underlined words. 1. Parts of a plant such as roots, rhizomes, fruits, bark, seeds, flowers, leaves, etc. may be used for medicinal purposes. 2. The time of harvesting or collecting plants and herbs is during the period when active constituents of a plant are highest in their number and quality. 3. It is necessary to store and preserve medicinal plants properly in order to maintain the degree of quality of the drug. 4. The presence of moisture decreases the amount of their constituents. 5. It is not difficult to compare odors. 6. Reserpine is described as a powder. 7. Olive oil sometimes has a tint. 8. The activity of certain drugs is established using different tests and methods. Exercise 10. Complete the sentences. 1. Flowers are collected ... .2. Bark is collected in the spring before ... .3. Roots and rhizomes are collected in autumn after ... .4. Man has known about the medicinal properties of plants since ... .5. Ten thousand plant detectives try to find new plants which ... .6. Fruits may be collected either before or after... .7. Seeds may be collected when .... 8. Odor is described as characteristic when .... Exercise 11. Fill in the blanks with the words given below. 1. The odor of a rose is described as .... 2. The usual ... for fruits or seeds is globular. 3. The odor of a drug of plant origin depends upon the amount of... constituents. 4. Olive oil is described as a pale yellow ... which sometimes has a greenish tint. 5. The psychological ... of opium plant was known to the ancient population of many south-eastern countries. 6. Garlic is used in the treatment of many ... in a pure state or as a compound or mixture. 7. Due to modern laboratories it can be shown how garlic ... microbes. (liquid, effect, agreeable, shape, affect, disease, volatile) Exercise 12. Read the sentences, use the verbs in the correct form (indefinite or perfect). 1. In Bulgaria and the Caucasus there is a great number of people who (to live) to the age of 100 and are still active. 2. Investigations of scientists on the activity of garlic (to make) garlic oil very popular since that time. 3. Experiments on the medicinal properties of plants (to show/ that some of their constituents are very active against microbes. 4. Last season our botanical station (to pay) special attention to the proper storage of herbs. 5. Second-year roots usually і to contain) high properties of alkaloids. 6. By 1906 Russian botanist Tswett (to publish) a description of the technique for separating pigments of green leaves. Exercise 13. Discuss the text answering the questions. 1. What facts prove that the attention to medicinal properties of plants has greatly increased at present? 2. How can you define fruits and seeds? Roots and rhizomes? 3. What period do we call "proper time of harvesting"? 4. Are different pans of plants and herbs gathered at different periods? Give some examples. 5. Why is it necessary to gather medicinal plants at proper time? 6. What factors affect the amount and quality of plant constituents? 7. What odor do we call "characteristic"? 9. Into what groups are medicinal herbs divided according to taste? 10. How s pharmacological activity of certain drugs established? Exercise 14. Tell your pen friend about medicinal plants according to the plan.
LESSON THIRTY-NINE Control Test . To have a heart of means to be very 2. is made of dead and weakened •..nd. germs. A. silver A. A drug B. stone B. A chemical C. bronze C. A medicine D. gold D. A vaccine E. iron E. A serum 3. is a written order for medicine. A. A label B. A sick list C. A direction D. A prescription E. An instruction 4. like doors, will open with ease. A. Wounds B. Hospitals C. Heart D. Hearts E. Windows 5. You use when you are nervous. A. a laxative B. a sedative C. an antiseptic D. an adhesive E. an antibiotic 6. A nurse must her feelings. A.speak B. control C. show D. understand E. demonstrate 7. A person who has may have a running nose. A. a fever B.a headache C. a flu D. a stomachache E. a toothache 8. Another name for sickness is . A.ache B. pain C. disease D. virus E. happiness 9. when you feel bad. A. Get an injection B. Write in your chart C. Take your temperature D. Drink tea E. Have a snack 10. A nurse observes changes in patient's A. feelings B. condition C. look D. state E. all of the above 11. A doctor patients. A. prescribes B. examines C. works D. observes E. chooses 12. One can take in case of pain. A. a sedative B. an antiseptic C. a laxative D. a syringe E. an analgetic 13.A doctor usually gives a patient before surgery. A. an anesthesia B. a sedative C. a laxative D. an antibiotic E. a tablet 14. disease is a disease you get from another person. A. A child B. An infectious C. A heart D. A cardiovascular E. A lung 15. A nurse doctor's instructions. A. gives B. sees C. carries out D. begins E. does 16. is a wonderful organ that works every moment of your life. A. Pulse B. The heart C. Blood D. Blood pressure E. The head .". When a nurse takes your pulse, she note the strength of beating. A. can B. is to C. must D. will E. may x All child's diseases are caused by A. germs B. viruses C. antibodies D. chemicals E. bacilli - If a person has , he/she may complain : r.eadaches, nosebleedings, heartaches. A. hypotension B. anemia C. hypertension D. low BP E. dystonia 1 '-. nurse takes of people who are sick. A. medicine 3 condition care D. walk z cups -. doctor prescribes to patients. A. drops 3 drugs C. injections D. pills E. medicine 22. A nurse must be a person. A. worried B. surgical C. good D.happy E. sad 23. A doctor examines the patient's body during . A. treatment B.checkups C. checking D. work E. practice 24. is what you can do to become healthy. A. Curing B. Getting treatment C. Taking medicine D. Medicine E. Smoking 25. To be born with a silver spoon in one's A. heart B. throat C. mouth D. head E. nose 26. A doctor asks questions about your . A. body B. mood C. illness D. disease E. health 27. You can a doctor when you are sick. A. to go to B. go to C. to visit D. visit E. to come 28. is a signal that you may be sick. A. A disease B. A fever C. A symptom D. A vims E. An alarm clock 29. A drug is a that changes the way your body works. A. substance B. remedy C. medicine D. chemical E. tablet 30. A doctor does on a patient. A. surgery B. nursery C. treatment D. work E. experiment 31. While blood pressure you must think of the patient's age. A. measuring B. taking C. checking D. analyzing E. giving 32. is a type of medicine to make antibodies. A. A drug B. An injection C. Remedy D. A vaccine E. A substance 33. Hypotension is a rather serious A. complication B. dangerous C. pain D. disease E. thing 34. A doctor treatment to you. A. prescribes B. gives C. consults D. prescription E. examines 35. Drags can be used to your condition. A.save B. ease C. protect D. improve E. relieve 36. To see the heart's work you must have an A. EG B. electrocardiogram C. ECC D. pH E. X-rays 37. When you take the pulse, you must remember about . A. the head B. the heart C. the vibration D. the rhythm E. the doctor 38. When you have a running nose, you take . A. a mixture B. an ointment C. an infusion D. drops E. a paper tissue 39. may cause hypotension. A. Laugh B. Fatigue C. Sleep D. Weather E. Rain 40. Another name for sickness is . A.ache B. pain C. disease D. virus E. health -1. A rise in the body temperature is . A. flu B. fever C. chickenpox D. cold E. worring -2. We get emergency help when we become in . A. a ward B. a community C. a house D. a hospital E. an office - 3 People who have a can have chills and -: dv aches. ' A. flu B. cold C. fever D. disease E. work - A disease with red spots on the skin is A. quinsy B. chickenpox C. measles D. rickets H.flu - \hen you have a throat, you must it. A. weak B. sore C. pain D.ache E. red 46. You can your heart by exercising. A. control B. strengthen C. listen D. care E. hear 47. To have a running nose means to have . A. a cough B. a cold in the head C. a fracture D. a sunstroke E. a nosebleed 48. is the body's ability to keep from getting a certain infectious disease. A. Antibodies B. Condition C. An immunity D. Disease agent E. Laugh 49. One must take care of personal . A. immunity B. hygiene C. body D. heart E. computer 50. works due to arteries, veins, capillaries. A. Blood B. Blood cells C. Heart D. Pressure E. Vessels 51. Heart diseases mean diseases. A. heart valve B. cardiovascular C. congenital D. heart muscle E. infectious 52. After heavy exercises the pulse is A. faster B. slower C. better D. normal E. absent 53. can cause side effects. A. Drugs B. Medicine C. Complications D. Vaccine E. Overdosage 54. People with scarlet fever have _ A. a flushed face B. a rash C. red spots D. spots E. a smiling face 55. means an injury. A. An ache B. A wound C. A pain D. A disease E. An accident 56. Patients can have postoperative _ A. condition B. pain C. reaction D. operation E. work 57. All surgical instruments must be . A. clean B. sterile C. dirty D. antiseptic E. on the table 58. Rest is important for patients with diseases. A. child's B. infectious C. heart D. lung E. renal she must 59. When the nurse applies wear a mask. A.changes B. dressings C. gloves D. a gown 60. E. syringes an infectious disease. Everyone can A. observe B. see C.prevent D. feel E. watch LESSON FORTY Independent Reading
/.Health Service in Ukraine In Ukraine medical help is available in hospitals, polyclinics, and also in medical centers •] such places as factories and schools. Health service is based on local therapeutists as they are the first to diagnose. Some certain district is appointed to a polyclinic and this district is divided into several areas. Each area is irpointed to a certain therapeutist. All the people who live in that area visit their appointed doctor. An average number of people, visiting their doctor every day, is 20-25, but when there > an epidemic of cold, this number is 50-60 people a day. There is some tendency which is -: wadays widely discussed, that a person him- or herself can choose the doctor he or she vants to visit. A person can call his local therapeutist so that the doctor will come and see his ■ ment. A therapeutist examines a patient, assigns some treatment, prescribes some medicines and r . es a medical certificate. In a hospital there is also a therapeutic department, where pneumonia, bronchitis or asthma "e treated. There also exists a wide network of ambulance service in Ukraine. It was founded - Kharkivin 1905. Nowadays there are a lot of paid clinics where one can get any kind of medical help. Many : :hem are specialized: dentist offices, eye care centers, etc. There also exist some medical associations in Ukraine, such as Ukrainian Diabetes ---ociation. About 1 million people in Ukraine suffer from this disease. In this association : .-pie can get medical help or medicines free of charge. 2. Doctors and Patients An ordinary doctor (sometimes called G.P., i.e. general practitioner) is sometimes a -.cum or a surgeon (i.e. able to perform operations), and quite often he is both physician _: 4irgeon. But if the illness is serious, or the operation a big one. he will advise you to ..' _ >pecialist. You will go to the specialist or he will come to you, and if you must have an - г-ition, he will advise you to go to a hospital or a nursing home where they will have all the -.. еччагу equipment. if your teeth need attention, stopping, filling, or extracting, or if you need false teeth :. ..res), then you go to the dentist. Common illnesses are: cough, cold, influenza (flu), sore throat. Children often get: measles (including "German" measles), mumps, scarlet fever -. whooping cough. You can generally know that a child is not well if he/she has a tempera:,: (i.e. it is above the normal 93.4° Fahrenheit). Older people suffer from indigestion, rheumatism, heart troubles and blood pressure. Some diseases are infectious or contagious, and great care must be taken by people .; :. have these illnesses so that they don't pass them on to other people. You may have toothache, stomachache, headache, earache. All these give you pain. T'r.e-you may get a bum, a scald, or a wound; you may get blood poisoning, or break a bone. Some of the commonest things used to prevent or cure illnesses are medicines: p:l-powders, ointments, sleeping draughts, injections, bandages, tinctures, disinfectants, antiseptic tablets, drops and others. Even in medical clinics you'll sometimes have to wait for some time before you see _ doctor. The advantage of a medical clinic over a regular doctor's office is that you don't have : wait for an appointment. Patients are seen on a first come, first served basis. Doctors aren't supposed to dispense drugs other than free samples. What your doctor gh e -you is a prescription for medicine and you'll have to go to a pharmacy, a drug store, or tc _ chemist's. Sometimes a pharmacist will call your doctor to confirm the dose or nature c: prescription. In most American cities you can find quick medical care at what are called "walk-in medic;, clinics". If you're sick and don't have a doctor, such clinics can provide prompt and relati\ e. inexpensive treatment for minor illnesses. 3. Medicine and Health Care In the final decades of the 20th century, Americans increasingly view good health ^ something to which they have a right. They believe they have a right to good health becau>e widespread advances in medical research have made it possible to treat many previous, "untreatable" diseases. These rising expectations regarding health care in the United States are the result of vastly increased medical knowledge and the belief that in an affluent ar.rc democratic society all people should have access to well-trained physicians, fully equippec hospitals and highly sophisticated procedures for the treatment of disease. Physicians Self-employed private physicians who charge a fee for each patient visit are the foundation of medical practice in the United States. Most physicians have a contractual relationship u it-one or more hospitals in the community. They send their patients to this hospital, which usual/, charges patients according to the number of days they stay and the facilities (operating room tests, medicines) that they use. Some hospitals belong to a city, a state or in the case of veteran's hospitals a federal government agency. Others are operated by religious orders or other nonprofit groups. Still others operate for profit. Some medical doctors are on salary. Salaried physicians may work as hospital stan members, or residents, who often are still in training. They may teach in medical schools, be hired by corporations to care for their workers or work for the federal government's Public Health Service. Physicians are among the best paid professionals in the United States. In the 1980s, it was not uncommon for medical doctors to earn incomes of more than $ 100,000 a year. Specialists, particularly surgeons, might earn several times that amount. Physicians list many reasons why they deserve to be so well rewarded for their work. One reason is the long and expensive preparation required to become a physician in the United States. Most would-be physicians first attend college for four years, which can cost nearly $ 20,000 annually at one of the best private institutions. Prospective physicians then attend medical school for four years. Tuition alone can be more than $10,000 a year. By the time they have obtained their medical degrees, many young physicians are deeply in debt. They still face three to five years of residency in a hospital, the first year as an intern, an apprentice physician. The hours are long and the pay is -datively low. Setting up a medical practice is expensive, too. Sometimes several physicians will decide :o establish a group practice, so they can share the expense of maintaining an office and buying equipment. These physicians also take care of each other's patients in emergencies. Medical Costs Physicians' fees are only one reason for rising health costs in the United States. Medical research has produced many tests to diagnose, or discover patients' illnesses. Physicians usually eel obliged to order enough tests to rule out all likely causes of patient's symptoms. A routine .moratory bill for blood tests can easily be more than $ 100. Sophisticated new machines have been developed to enable physicians to scan body mans. One technique involves the use of ultrasound to produce images. Others use computers capture and analyze images produced by X-rays or magnetic fields. 4. Computers Concern You When Charles Babbage, a professor of mathematics at Cambridge University, invented the - calculating machine in 1812, he could not even imagine the situation we find ourselves in my. Nearly everything we do in the modern world is helped, or even controlled, by computers, mputers are used more and more extensively in the world today for the simple reason that " e;. are far more efficient than human beings. They have much better memories and can store -re amounts of information, and they can do calculations in a fraction of the time taken by . .man mathematician. No man alive can do 500,000 sums in one second, but an advanced muter can. In fact, computers can do many of the things we do, but faster and better. Many people associate computers with the world of science and mathematics, but they are great help to scholars in other subjects: in history, literature, medicine and so on. It's now ■ - - mle for a scholar to find a book or article he needs very quickly, which, when a million or - -. new books are published each year, is quite an advantage. So computers can help us to .: - ith the knowledge explosion in many ways. 5. Hobbies and Leisure Time Occupations 7 mm the old English word hobby meaning horse, came the modern word hobbyhorse. > л dummy horse attached to a performer who pretended to be riding a horse in a play . mmce. Hobbyhorse has been shortened to hobby to describe any favorite leisure time . - m:on. This word has become rather common in modern usage. Leisure time occupations, or hobbies, can be divided into four groups: doing things, такі: \. things, collecting things and learning things. Of these four groups, doing things is perhaps the most popular. It includes a wide range of activities, from gardening to sailing and from che>: to foreign travel. Some of these hobbies require very little equipment while others require considerably more. There is also a choice between mental and physical activities, indoor anc outdoor pursuits, etc. Leisure time occupations can be more or less active. A real hobby is usually defines as something creative and individual, sometimes even as something obsessive, unusual or eccentric. Even if one's hobby does not solely consist of the study of particular subjects, a real hobbyist wants to learn more about his chosen subject and its history, so that he can become e. real expert at it. Outdoor Activities or Activities outside the Home Sports activities: athletics, gymnastics, cycling, swimming, sailing, rowing, canoeing, racing, skiing, mountaineering, climbing. Playing games: football/soccer, handball, volleyball, tennis, table tennis, basketball, baseball, water polo, golf, badminton, bowling, judo, fencing, boxing and taking part in competitions. Other activities: gardening, fishing, traveling (e.g. visiting the countryside, the seaside, museums, art exhibitions, historical places), walking, driving a car, car maintenance, singing in a choir, watching outdoor sports, betting on matches or races. 6. Are You Left-Handed? Life is easier if you're right-handed. You can open a can of tomatoes, use a pair of scissors or write a cheque without problems. People won't think that you're strange, and you'll be one of the 90 % of people who use their right hand more than their left. Many animals are "right-handed" or "left-handed" too; what is interesting about human beings is that many choose to be right-handed. What makes us different? In earlier times left-handed people were sometimes thought to be bad or even dangerous and were sometimes even killed. Quite recently, children who wanted to use their left hands were taught to use their right instead. The teacher of King George VI of England (1895-1952) tied his left hand behind his back to make him use his right, and it was probably because of this that he had speech problems later in his life. However, modern ideas about how children use their hands are very different. Some doctors now think that the choice is made when babies are still very young. Look at this advice from a modern book for parents. There is no natural law which states that one hand is superior to the other so it should never bother you if your child is left-handed. You may think that by "encouraging" your child to use his right hand instead of his left one you're doing him a favor for later life so that he'll never have to suffer the minor annoyances of right-handed potato peelers or scissors. You are not. And, what's more, you could well risk causing psychological side-effects like stuttering as well as reading and writing difficulties by altering what your baby's brain naturally wants to do. But why is anyone left-handed? Why aren't we all right-handed or perhaps 50 % right-handed and 50 % left? Psychologist Dr. Marian Annett thinks that a long time ago people used both hands equally; what changed things was that human beings learned to speak. The left hemisphere controls the right-hand side of the body and the right controls the left. Speech became connected to the left hemisphere of the brain; and as speech became more and more important, so the left hemisphere became more and more powerful. As the left hemisphere became more important, so the right-hand side of the body was used more; right-handedness became more common, and the functions of the right hemisphere became weaker. This means that left-handers are often slower to speak and read than right-handers. But left-handed people have advantages too. According to recent scientific theories, left-handed people have a better chance of becoming great sportsmen. Did you know that majority of tennis, table tennis, fencing and boxing champions are left-handed? Left-handed people's brains work better and more quickly. This characteristic is very important in individual sports and in those like tennis, table tennis, boxing and fencing where players move closer or further away during the game. In these fields, the athletes' reaction times are of fundamental importance and a left-handed person can think quicker than his adversary. Left-handedness emerges most strikingly in the arts; back in the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci. Michelangelo and Hans Holbein were all notable left-handers. The most famous left-handed person of all times is Leonardo da Vinci. He invented a system of writing which went from right to left which was much more suited to him than the traditional method. There are even famous left-handed people in the world of music like Beethoven and Paganini. Add talented individuals such as Paul Klee, Charlie Chaplin, Lenny Bruce, Greta Garbo, Marilyn Monroe, Marcel Marceau, Jimi Hendrix — and you are bound to conclude that lefties have as strong a set of advantages as handicaps. 7. Vegetarians The word "'vegetarians" was coined about 1840 to mean people who lived without killing "or food, either for normal or health reasons, or both. But the practice is much older than ::iat. Greek philosophers recommended vegetarianism and famous people who practised it in .ic past include Leonardo da Vinci, Tolstoy and Voltaire, Milton, Newton and Bernard Shaw. S -ireiy this proves that mental activity does not depend on flesh foods. What are the arguments :.ai might stop us from eating meat? Man's body is more like those of fruit-eating animals (such as our "cousins'1 the apes) that •;e those of flesh eating animals. For millions of years a man must have lived on fruit, nuts -. . J leaves and so developed a digestive system. Perhaps the more we move away from this diet a ards meat-eating, the less likely we are to be healthy. Cancer, tuberculosis and heart diseases certainly more common in meat-eating communities. Man may have started eating the flesh : animals during the ice Age when most of vegetation was destroyed. A diet of vegetables, fruit, grains and nuts together with a few dairy products can give us :he vitamins and minerals we need. By eating meat we are getting the basic food elements .. ndhand after they have been digested by the animal. It is worth considering how wasteful , ./--caters are with land. A meat-eater needs about three times as much land to support himself - ; lis animals as a vegetarian does. For every 45 kilos of dry food eaten by cattle only 1.8-7.3 - come back as food for us, humans - an expensive method of producing food. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||